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Article

Mechanical Performance of a Hot Mix Asphalt Modified with Biochar Obtained from Oil Palm Mesocarp Fiber

by
Saieth Baudilio Chaves-Pabón
1,
Hugo Alexander Rondón-Quintana
2,* and
Juan Gabriel Bastidas-Martínez
3
1
Programa de Ingeniería Civil, Facultad de Estudios a Distancia, Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Cajicá 111321, Colombia
2
Facultad del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá 111711, Colombia
3
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Piloto de Colombia, Bogotá 110231, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Infrastructures 2024, 9(9), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090156
Submission received: 8 August 2024 / Revised: 6 September 2024 / Accepted: 7 September 2024 / Published: 10 September 2024
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Abstract

A recently used material that shows environmental and technical advantages for use as an asphalt binder modifier is biochar (BC). Different biomasses can be converted into BC by pyrolysis. One agro-industrial biomass that is abundant in copious quantities is oil palm mesocarp fiber (OPMF) obtained from African palm cultivation. In the present study, the use of a BC obtained from OPMF (BC-OPMF) as a modifier of asphalt binder (AC type) to produce a hot mix asphalt (HMA) was evaluated. This type of BC has not been investigated or reported in the reference literature as a binder and/or asphalt mix modifier. Initially, AC was modified with BC in three ratios (BC/AC = 5, 10, and 15%, with respect to mass) to perform penetration, softening point, and rotational viscosity tests; rheological characterization at high and intermediate temperatures; and scanning electron microscope (SEM) visualization. Based on this experimental phase, BC/AC = 10% was chosen to manufacture the modified HMA. Resistance parameters under monotonic loading (stability—S, flow—F, S/F ratio of the Marshall test, and indirect tensile strength in dry—ITSD and wet—ITSC conditions) and cyclic loading (resilient modulus, permanent deformation, and fatigue resistance under stress-controlled conditions) were evaluated on the control HMA (AC unmodified) and the modified HMA. Additionally, the tensile strength ratio (TSR) was calculated to evaluate the resistance to moisture damage. Abrasion and raveling resistance were evaluated by performing Cantabro tests. BC-OPMF is shown to be a sustainable and promising material for modifying asphalt binders for those seeking to increase stiffness and rutting resistance in high-temperature climates, resistance to moisture damage, raveling, and fatigue without increasing the optimum asphalt binder content (OAC), changing the volumetric composition of the HMA or increasing the manufacturing and construction temperatures.

1. Introduction

Industrial and population growth in the world has increased greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, impacting the environment and human health [1,2,3]. Sharing, renting, reusing, repairing, refurbishing, and recycling existing materials and products as many times as possible to extend their life cycle, generating added and sustainable value, is a concept currently referred to as a circular economy [4,5]. In many countries, agriculture is one of the most valuable and economically and socially important sectors. Global agricultural production is estimated to have tripled in the last 50 years [6] and produces about 24 million tons of food daily [7]. However, this sector is responsible for 21% of global (CO2) emissions, and the generation of enormous amounts of waste [8]. In Colombia, it is estimated that the agricultural sector produces around 70 million tons of waste per year [9], and one of the products that is the most cultivated and generates the most waste is the African palm used to obtain oil. This crop has increased significantly in the last 20 years thanks to public policies that have encouraged it. The average life expectancy of the oil palm is 25 to 30 years, and it is the most productive edible oil crop in the world. In South America, Colombia ranks first in terms of African palm cultivation and stands out as the world’s fourth largest producer (producing about 2% of the world’s production). The cultivated land area increased from 119,000 ha to 480,000 ha between 1993 and 2015 [10]. According to [11], this area increased from 161,210 ha to 516,960 ha between 2001 and 2017, and production increased from 544 to 1627 thousand tons. Agricultural residues such as oil palm mesocarp fiber (OPMF), palm fronds (PF), empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm kernel shells (PKS), and palm trunks (PT) are produced during the process of obtaining African palm oil [12,13,14]. These wastes must be properly disposed of, recycled, or reused, and cannot be buried, dumped in water sources, incinerated, disposed of, or stored in the open air. In Colombia, an average of 3.14 tons of oil and 21.68 tons of solid and liquid waste are generated per year per hectare [15]. Of these wastes, OPMF has been identified as a low-density, non-abrasive, biodegradable, non-hazardous, and environmentally friendly material [16]. OPMF is a natural, robust, and stiff material with a cellular structure like coconut fibers. These fibers are discarded and used to manufacture twine, flooring furniture, fiber foams, and vehicle cushions. According to [12,17], OPMF is a bulky, lignocellulosic, fibrous biomass that is primarily used as an alternative fuel to provide power in low-pressure boilers and backpressure steam turbines that support steam and electricity production in palm oil mills. Twenty million tons of OPMF are produced annually worldwide, usually without pretreatment, and no practical alternative use is feasible. In the consulted literature, OPMF is promoted as a sustainable material that can promote the circular economy in certain industrial sectors (e.g., automotive, construction, furniture, electronic, packaging, agriculture, textile, animal feed, household product, polymer and composite) [18,19,20]. In the construction and civil engineering industry, the use of OPMF has been little studied and only recent literature is found promoting it as reinforcement in concrete, mortar [21,22], stone mastic asphalts [3,16,23,24], porous asphalt mixes [25], and as a modifier of asphalt binders [26]. The literature reviewed concludes that its use is inefficient due to its abundance, which exceeds its potential use (approximately 11% of OPMF is produced after oil extraction; [18]). For this reason, sustainable use alternatives are sought within the circular economy.
On the other hand, biochar (BC) is currently being produced in Colombia with several types of biomasses (e.g., rice husks, African palm residues, pine). BC is seen as a cheaper substitute for coal that offers environmental advantages, as it helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions and avoids the release of CO2 emissions during its pyrolysis production process [27,28]. In addition, some BCs tend not to introduce new volatile organic compounds (VOCs) when mixed with asphalt binders [29], tend to inhibit and reduce VOCs [30,31], could reduce volatile emissions from asphalt surface areas [32], and help to absorb heavy metals, helping to minimize environmental pollution [33]. They have been used in agriculture as a soil supplement [1,34,35] and in construction; most studies have studied BC as a cement substitute in mortars or concretes [36,37]. BC presents interesting physical properties to be used in various engineering projects, especially as binder and asphalt mix modifiers: (i) high specific surface area, energy density, carbon content, and porosity; (ii) low thermal conductivity and flammability as well as high chemical stability and resistance to chemical and biological degradation [38,39,40,41]; (iii) high compatibility with asphalt binders and a tendency to increase their stiffness as well as rutting and aging resistance [36,42]. Zhao et al. [43,44] used a BC that used switchgrass as biomass and found that the pyrolysis method has a negligible effect on asphalt binder modification. Moreover, the addition of BC increased the viscosity, aging resistance, and stiffness of the asphalt binder, especially with BC content = 10%. Similar conclusions were reported by [45] using two BCs derived from walnut crust and apricot seed shell, [46] using Mesua ferrea seed cover, [47] using crop straw, and [48] using straw stalk. An increase in the stiffness of an asphalt mastic was also reported by [49] using a BC derived from rice straw as filler. Walters et al. [50,51] used a BC (swine manure as biomass) and reported increased annealing resistance and decreased thermal susceptibility of the modified AC. Zhang et al. [52,53] conclude that modified binders show better performance when the particles of a BC produced with a waste wood resource are smaller. Zhou and Adhikari [54] and Zhou et al. [55] modified a bio-asphalt with a BC derived from cypress waste wood and conclude that the BC produced SiO2 particles and improved the flow-induced crystallization ability as well as the aging and rutting resistance of the bio-asphalt. Zhou et al. [56] also modified a bio-asphalt with BC derived from pig manure and waste wood and reported increased binder stiffness.
In summary, BC is presented in the reference literature as a recent and novel technique to modify asphalt binders. Multiple biomasses have been converted into BC for this purpose (e.g., rice and crop straw, walnut crust and seed shell, straw stalk, switchgrass, Mesua ferrea seed cover, cypress waste wood, waste wood resource, swine manure). Few studies have been conducted on hot mix asphalt (HMA) to evaluate the influence of BCs on its mechanical performance and durability [36]. This manuscript presents the results obtained from an experimental phase designed to evaluate the mechanical performance of an HMA manufactured with an asphalt binder (AC type) modified with a BC whose biomass was OPMF (BC-OPMF). As a novel and innovative aspect, this type of BC has not been studied in asphalt. Initially, a material characterization phase was conducted, and conventional physical properties of the AC modified with BC-OPMF were measured at different mass ratios (BC/AC = 5%, 10%, 15%). This was done to choose the optimum BC/AC content. Mechanical strength tests were then conducted on the HMA manufactured with the modified binder: Marshall, indirect tensile strength—ITS (on dry and wet conditioned samples), Cantabro, resilient modulus, permanent deformation, and fatigue (stress-controlled) tests. With the ITS results, the tensile strength ratio (TSR) was calculated to evaluate the resistance to moisture damage. To evaluate whether BC-OPMF produced significant changes in the measured mechanical properties, an ANOVA analysis of variance was performed (95% confidence; significance level of 0.05).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

AC 60–70 asphalt binder (penetration range in dmm) and aggregate from CONCRESCOL S.A. in Bogota were used to manufacture the HMA. The properties of both materials are shown in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
The BC-OPMF was obtained from Control y Controles Industriales LTDA in Bucaramanga. The OPMF biomass (Figure 1a) was transformed into BC-OPMF (Figure 1b) in a pyrolysis furnace with a production capacity of 500 kg/hour. The residence time in the furnace was 20 min, and the temperature was 450 °C. The BC-OPMF used was crushed into particles passing the #200 sieve (size less than 0.075 mm). These particles were visualized (between 500 and 10,000 magnification) in a scanning electron microscope—SEM (e.g., Figure 2a–d) type JEOL JSM-6700F. Particle length, pore diameter of BC-OPMF, and its elemental chemical composition were measured. The amorphous BC-OPMF particles showed a rough and porous structure (pore diameters varying between 200 nm and 600 nm). The maximum particle size varied between 45 µm and 70 µm. The elemental chemical composition of BC-OPMF is C (78 ± 6%), O (16 ± 2.5%), and small amounts of Si (1.1 ± 0.4%), Ca (0.7 ± 0.2%), K (0.69 ± 0.3%), Mg (0.37 ± 0.2%), and Al (0.34 ± 0.1%) (the latter five mainly due to OPMF biomass). This composition indicates that BC-OPMF is a carbonaceous material that is highly compatible with AC.

2.2. Modification and Properties of Modified Asphalt Binder

The AC was modified with BC-OPMF at 150 °C by mixing both materials at 4000 rpm for 30 min using a high speed shearing mixer. The BC-OPMF contents were 5%, 10%, and 15% with respect to the mass of the AC (BC/AC = 5%, 10%, and 15%). The modification temperature, time, and BC-OPMF content were chosen based on a literature review [36]. The experimental results of the physicochemical and rheological characterization of an AC 60–70 modified with two BCs whose biomasses were African palm husk and rice husk [57,58] were also considered. Penetration (ASTM D-5), softening point (ASTM D-36), and viscosity (AASHTO T 316) tests were performed on the modified (BC/AC = 5%, 10%, and 15%) and unmodified (BC/AC = 0%) AC 60–70. Penetration (load = 100 g, temperature = 25 °C, time = 5 s) and softening point tests were conducted using conventional methods, while viscosity was measured using a rotational viscometer at 100 °C, 115 °C, 135 °C, 150 °C, and 165 °C to construct the viscosity curve. The results of these tests are shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5, respectively. Additionally, a rheological characterization phase at intermediate and high service temperatures was conducted using a dynamic shear rheometer—DSR (AASHTO T 315; see results in Table 3) and the parameters G* (complex shear modulus) and δ (phase angle) at a frequency of 10 rad/s were measured. Following the AASHTO T 315 procedure, for high temperatures (58 °C to 70 °C), the samples (unaged binder, rolling thin film oven—RTFO residue) were 1 mm thick and 25 mm in diameter, while for intermediate temperatures (16 °C to 22 °C; pressure aging vessel—PAV residue), these dimensions were 2 mm and 8 mm, respectively. To establish the performance grade (PG) and evaluate the rutting resistance at elevated temperatures, the G*/sinδ ratio was used. Cracking resistance at intermediate temperatures was evaluated using G*sinδ. BC-OPMF significantly increased the stiffness of AC (increased softening point and viscosity with decreased penetration). It also increased the resistance to permanent deformation in rheology tests, increasing the PG from 64 °C to 70 °C in BC/AC = 10% (G*/sinδ > 1.0 kPa for the unaged asphalt binder, and 2.2 kPa for the short-term-aged asphalt binder after the RTFO procedure). These results are consistent with those in the consulted reference literature (e.g., [43,45,46,47,48,53,56,59]). From the chemical point of view, the high porosity of BC-OPMF visualized in SEM could preferentially adsorb the light maltenes fraction compared to asphaltenes, helping to increase the viscosity and stiffness of the binder [33,48]. In addition, the fibrous and porous structure of the BC could help form a skeleton and a stiffness zone in the binder [48]. At intermediate temperatures, the BC did not generate changes in the PG of the binder (PG remained at 22 °C for both unmodified and modified AC; G*sinδ < 5000 kPa for the long-term-aged asphalt binder after the PAV procedure). Additionally, the ratio of the parameter G*/sinδ after RTFO with unaged BC/AC = 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% binders was on average 2.02, 1.69, 1.71, and 1.91, respectively. This ratio was 2070, 1417, 1131, and 1041 when G*sinδ after RTFO + PAV and after RTFO were related, respectively. These values indicate that BC-OPMF helps to improve the aging resistance of the binder, as it tends to stiffen the AC less when subjected to thermo-oxidative processes [60]. According to [61], BC could delay oxidation and UV-induced aging in the binder. In addition, BC could be providing aromatic and aliphatic compounds to the binder [55] and could improve flow-induced crystallization by enhancing aging resistance [54].
The highest binder stiffness (lower penetration with a higher softening point and viscosity) is exhibited when BC/AC is between 10% and 15%. However, with BC/AC = 15%, the mixing process is difficult; surface lumps are formed in the binder and the magnitude of the parameters is like those obtained with BC/AC = 10%. For these reasons, based on the results and the literature review, BC/AC = 10% was chosen as the modified asphalt binder to manufacture the HMA. On the modified BC/AC = 10% binder, SEM observations were made, and the elemental chemical composition was measured at more than 30 randomly chosen points. No images are shown because only a dark black background characteristic of AC and BC-OPMF was observed. No clumping was observed in the visualizations, as the BC-OPMF particles decreased markedly in size at the nanometer scale, mainly because they were uniformly dispersed in the binder. Also, the BC/AC = 10% binder showed a similar chemical composition to the unmodified AC (BC/AC = 0%) (more than 97% on average composed of carbon), demonstrating the high compatibility that exists between BC-OPMF and AC. However, at some points, chemical compositions like those of BC-OPMF were obtained due to targeting and measuring on some nanometer particles of BC embedded in the binder.

2.3. Asphalt Mix Design Procedure

Marshall-type HMA cylindrical samples (mass = 1200 g, diameter = 101.6 mm, height = 63.5 mm, number of compaction blows per face = 75) were manufactured following the AASHTO T-245 specification. Two types of mixes were evaluated: an HMA reference mix called control that was manufactured with the unmodified AC 60–70 (BC/AC = 0%) and one manufactured with the chosen modified asphalt binder (BC/AC = 10%). The compaction and mixing temperatures were 145 ± 5 °C and 150 ± 3 °C, respectively. These temperatures were chosen considering the viscosity curve (Figure 5; recommended range for compaction temperature = 280 ± 30 cP and mixing temperature = 170 ± 20 cP). According to the viscosity curve, the modified HMA (BC/AC = 10%) needed an approximate increase in these temperatures between 5 °C and 10 °C; however, this increase was not performed for the following reasons: (i) not having another variable to evaluate; (ii) not affecting the environment by increasing the use of fuel and energy in the asphalt plants; (iii) not oxidizing, aging, and stiffening the binder with the increase in temperature. To measure the Marshall strength parameters (stability—S, flow—F, and S/F ratio) and volumetric parameters (air voids in the mix—Va, voids filled with asphalt—VFA, and voids in the mineral aggregates—VMA), samples were manufactured for each type of mix using four asphalt binder contents (4.5%, 5.0%, 5.5%, and 6.0%) with respect to the total mass. To obtain the optimum asphalt binder content (OAC) in the Marshall design, three samples per mix type were manufactured. The aggregates were proportioned considering the gradation required by the INVIAS [62] standard for HMA with a nominal maximum size of 19 mm (Table 4). S and F were obtained at 60 °C and the loading rate in the Marshall press was 50 ± 5 mm/min. The design criteria to obtain the OAC were those established by INVIAS [62] and IDU [63] for roads with medium and high traffic volumes: S minimum of 9 kN, F between 2 mm and 4 mm, S/F ratio between 3 kN/mm and 6 kN/mm, Va between 3% and 6%, minimum VMA of 15%, and VFA between 65% and 78%.

2.4. Mechanical Resistance Tests

Marshall tests were performed on the control (BC/AC = 0%) and modified (BC/AC = 10%) mixes as described above, as well as ITS (AASHTO T 283), Cantabro (Tex-245-F), resilient modulus (stiffness, UNE-EN 12697-26), permanent deformation (cyclic compression test, UNE-EN 12697-25), and fatigue resistance (UNE-EN 12697-24) tests.
The ITS test was performed on six Marshall samples for each type of mix. The samples were manufactured by applying the number of blows per face (compaction) necessary to obtain Va = 7 ± 1%. Three failed in dry conditions to determine the indirect dry tensile strength (ITSD) and the other three failed after being wet conditioned in water for one day at 60 °C (ITSC). Both parameters were obtained on samples conditioned at 25 °C and a Marshall press was used to apply the load at a rate of 50.8 mm/min. By relating both parameters (ITSC/ITSD), the TSR parameter was obtained as a percentage, which was used as an index of resistance to moisture damage.
Traditionally the Cantabro test is performed on open-graded asphalt mixes. However, according to [64,65], this test can be adapted to HMA mixes to evaluate abrasion resistance, non-load-induced cracking, weathering, and raveling. Three Marshall-type specimens were evaluated in the dry condition on the Los Angeles machine (without steel spheres). The samples were evaluated at 20 °C. The Cantabro loss (CL) parameter was obtained by Equation (1).
C L = m i − m f m i · 100
where mi is the initial mass of the sample in the dry condition and mf is the final mass of the sample after applying 500 revolutions in the Los Angeles machine.
Tests under cyclic loading were performed on a Nottingham asphalt tester (NAT). The resilient modulus was obtained on three samples per mix type using an indirect tensile “half-sine” load, loading frequencies of 2.5 Hz, 5.0 Hz, and 10.0 Hz, and temperatures of 10 °C, 20 °C, and 30 °C. The resistance to permanent deformation was measured on three specimens per mix type using a square wave load type, cyclic axial stress of 100 kPa, loading frequency of 0.5 Hz, and temperature of 40 °C. Axial vertical deformation was measured with LVDTs (linear variable differential transformers). Fatigue strength was conducted in controlled stress mode, the loading frequency was 10 Hz, and the temperature was 20 °C. The failure criterion (obtaining the number of failure cycles Nf) was the total rupture of the specimen. Cyclic stresses ranged from 200 kPa to 500 kPa. The fatigue curves were plotted considering the results of the tests performed on nine Marshall-type specimens per type of mixture.

3. Results and Analysis

3.1. Asphalt Mix Design

The Marshall test results of the control and modified (BC/AC = 10%) HMA mixes are shown in Figure 6. The volumetric composition (Va, VMA and VFA; Figure 6a–c, respectively) of both mixes is similar and the BC-OPMF did not generate statistically significant changes (FT < F0.05 = 7.71; Table 5) except for the AC content of 6%. The OAC of both HMAs is 5.5%. At this percentage, BC-OPMFs helped to increase the S and Marshall quotient (S/F) by about 3% and 7% (Figure 6d,f), respectively, and this increase was statistically significant (FT > F0.05 = 7.71; Table 5). Overall, it is observed that the modified HMA mix shows higher strength under monotonic loading when the AC content ranges between 4.5% and the optimum OAC of 5.5% (S and S/F increase between 3% and 7.5%). These increases in strength are consistent with the increase in stiffness obtained from the binder when BC-OPMF was added (Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5, and Table 3).

3.2. Indirect Tensile Strength and Cantabro Tests

The parameters obtained from the ITS and Cantabro tests are used to evaluate aspects associated with adhesion and durability. The TSR obtained from the ITS test is used to evaluate resistance to moisture damage, while the Cantabro test is used to obtain the CL, which is an indicator of resistance to abrasion and raveling. Additionally, these parameters have a direct correlation with the adhesion and cohesion of the mixes. The ITSD and ITSC parameters obtained from the ITS tests are shown in Figure 7, while the CL is shown in Figure 8. The mixes that used the BC-OPMF modified binder experienced a higher ITSD and ITSC. In the dry state, the increase in the ITSD was 2.4% and was not statistically significant (FT = 0.45 < F0.05 = 7.71). In contrast, the 13.4% increase in the ITSC was statistically significant (FT = 18.1 > F0.05 = 7.71). The above indicates that BC-OPMF helped to improve the indirect tensile strength of the mix in the presence of water. This statement is consistent with the TSR values of 75.6% and 83.7% obtained for the control and modified HMA (BC/AC = 10%), respectively. It is also important to highlight that the control HMA does not meet the minimum value of TSR = 80% recommended by INVIAS [62] and IDU [63], while the modified HMA does meet this condition. In summary, the BC-OPMF helped the AC to improve adhesion with aggregates and increase resistance to moisture damage. Comparable results using other types of BCs have been reported by other researchers [36,44,59]. The modified HMA (BC/AC = 10%) shows higher abrasion resistance (a lower CL). The lower magnitude of the CL parameter of the modified HMA was statistically significant with respect to the control HMA (FT = 14.6 > F0.05 = 7.71). These results are consistent with the S/F ratio and the parameters obtained from the ITS test [66]. Also, the higher aging resistance (less brittle mix) of the modified binder could contribute to a lower CL [67]. Like the ITS test, these results show that BC-OPMF could help to improve binder adhesion with aggregates. Additionally, the cohesion of the mix could increase, which is consistent with the increase in the S/F ratio obtained in the Marshall test.

3.3. Resilient Modulus and Permanent Deformation Tests

The evolution of the resilient modulus with loading frequency and temperature of the control and modified (BC/AC = 10%) mix is shown in Figure 9. The BC-OPMF helped to increase the stiffness under cyclic loading of the mix. The approximate increase in stiffness was 15.3 ± 1.6%, 11.4 ± 0.9%, and 14.5 ± 0.3% for the temperatures of 10 °C, 20 °C, and 30 °C, respectively. Based on ANOVA analysis, this increase was statistically significant (FT > F0.05; Table 6). That is, the modified HMA showed higher stiffness and rutting resistance compared to the control HMA. The increase in resilient modulus generated an increase in resistance to permanent deformation (Figure 10). At 3600 s, the control HMA exhibited higher displacement (0.29 mm) compared to the modified HMA, and this was statistically significant (FT = 27.6 > F0.05 = 7.71). Additionally, the displacement rate measured between 1800 s and 3600 s of loading was 48 × 10−6 mm/s and 45.9 × 10−6 mm/s for the control and modified HMA, respectively. The resilient modulus and permanent deformation results are consistent with the increase in stiffness reported previously in the penetration, softening point, viscosity, and rheology tests (AC stiffness increases with BC-OPMF; Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5, and Table 3). These results are also consistent with those reported in the reference literature using other types of BC as modifiers (e.g., [36,42,44,68,69]). Moreover, these results are consistent with the S/F ratio of the Marshall test and with the results of the Cantabro test (the stiffness of the mixtures tends to increase with decreasing CL) [70,71]. On the other hand, the amorphous form and the porous and rough surface texture of the BC-OPMF was able to generate a combination that strengthened the binder microstructure, increasing the cohesion of the mixture [44,52].

3.4. Fatigue Resistance Test

Fatigue tests in the stress-controlled mode were performed on the control and modified HMA (BC/AC = 10%), and the results are shown in Figure 11. With the fatigue resistance curves in Figure 11, the parameters a and b (slope of the fatigue law) obtained by regression were calculated using Wöhler’s empirical Equation (2) type σ-Nf curve.
σ = a N f b
From Equation (2), the parameters σ6 and σ7 (magnitude of stress for the material to fail at Nf = 106 and 107, respectively) were also obtained by regression. These parameters are presented in Table 7. Higher values of a, σ6, and σ7, and a lower absolute value of b means an increase in fatigue strength. The slope of the fatigue law b of the control and modified HMA is equal (−0.224). Parameters a, σ6, and σ7 present higher magnitudes in the modified HMA. Considering the above and observing the trend of the fatigue strength curves in Figure 11, the modified HMA exhibits higher fatigue strength with respect to the control HMA. That is, BC-OPMF helped to increase fatigue strength, and these results are consistent with those obtained in the ITS and resilient modulus tests (under controlled-stress mode, fatigue strength increases with indirect tensile strength and stiffness under cyclic loading; [72,73,74,75,76,77]).

4. Conclusions

The present study evaluated the mechanical performance of an HMA produced with an AC modified with a BC whose biomass was OPMF (BC-OPMF). Based on the results obtained, our conclusions are as follows:
  • The optimum BC-OPMF content was 10% by mass (BC/AC = 10%).
  • The binder stiffness and the performance grade (PG) at high temperatures increased. No changes were observed in the PG at intermediate service temperatures.
  • With BC/AC = 10%, no lump formation was observed. There was also no loss of workability in the binder.
  • The increase in stiffness of the modified binder generated a modified HMA that was stiffer under cyclic loading (increased resilient modulus and resistance to permanent deformation) and monotonic loading (higher S/F ratio in the Marshall test).
  • The modified HMA mix (BC/AC = 10%) had a higher ITSD, ITSC, TSR, a, σ6, σ7, and a lower CL compared to the control HMA.
  • The BC-OPMF helped generate a binder that bonded better with aggregates, generating an HMA that tends to be more resistant to moisture damage, raveling, and fatigue under the stress-controlled mode.
  • The use of a modified HMA is recommended in hot temperature climates and in the construction of thick asphalt layers where a stress-controlled mode is more effective to evaluate fatigue resistance.
  • According to ANOVA analysis, the BC-OPMF generated statistically significant changes in the measured and evaluated properties of the HMAs, except for their volumetric composition.
  • Rheological characterization tests show that BC-OPMF could help to increase the resistance to thermo-oxidative aging of the base binder. However, to confirm this conclusion, further tests should be performed.
  • BC-OPMF might be considered as a potential environmentally sustainable modifier for AC that can increase the stiffness and rutting resistance of HMAs in high-temperature regions, maintaining performance levels at intermediate temperatures.
  • BC-OPMF improves resistance to moisture damage, raveling, and fatigue without requiring an increase in the OAC, altering the volume composition, and/or raising the mixing and compaction temperatures.
The conclusions obtained in the present study cannot be considered definitive since only one type of HMA, AC, and BC-OPMF were evaluated. Some recommendations for future studies are (i) to chemically characterize the modified binder; (ii) evaluate properties at low service temperatures and the aging resistance of the binder and the modified HMA mixture; (iii) use different types of ACs, OPMFs, gradations, aggregates, and asphalt mixtures; (iv) evaluate the influence of the surface area, size, and shape of the BC-OPMF particles; (v) perform full-scale testing and manufacture the modified HMA in an asphalt plant; (vi) perform socioeconomic-environmental impact assessments; (vi) perform a life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) and life cycle assessment (LCA).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.A.R.-Q. and S.B.C.-P.; methodology, H.A.R.-Q., S.B.C.-P. and J.G.B.-M.; validation, H.A.R.-Q., J.G.B.-M. and S.B.C.-P.; formal analysis, H.A.R.-Q., J.G.B.-M. and S.B.C.-P.; investigation, H.A.R.-Q., S.B.C.-P. and J.G.B.-M.; resources, H.A.R.-Q., S.B.C.-P. and J.G.B.-M.; data curation, S.B.C.-P., J.G.B.-M. and H.A.R.-Q.; writing—original draft H.A.R.-Q.; writing—review and editing, H.A.R.-Q., S.B.C.-P. and J.G.B.-M.; visualization, H.A.R.-Q.; supervision, S.B.C.-P.; project administration, S.B.C.-P.; funding acquisition, S.B.C.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

This article presents the results of a research project funded by the Vicerectoría de Investigaciones of the Universidad Militar Nueva Granada under Special Cooperation Agreement No. INV-DIS-3769 of 2023, signed between the Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, the Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, and the Universidad Piloto de Colombia. We also thank the company Control y Controles Industriales LTDA for producing and supplying the BC-OPMF, as well as the company CONCRESCOL S.A. for supplying the AC and the aggregate.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Figure 1. (a) OPMF and (b) BC-OPMF.
Figure 1. (a) OPMF and (b) BC-OPMF.
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Figure 2. SEM observations in (a) BC-OPMF (500× magnification); (b) pore measurement in BC-OPMF (500× magnification); (c) BC-OPMF (5000× magnification); (d) pore measurement in BC-OPMF (5000× magnification).
Figure 2. SEM observations in (a) BC-OPMF (500× magnification); (b) pore measurement in BC-OPMF (500× magnification); (c) BC-OPMF (5000× magnification); (d) pore measurement in BC-OPMF (5000× magnification).
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Figure 3. Penetration test results.
Figure 3. Penetration test results.
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Figure 4. Softening point test results.
Figure 4. Softening point test results.
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Figure 5. Viscosity test results.
Figure 5. Viscosity test results.
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Figure 6. Marshall test results. Evolution of (a) Va; (b) VMA; (c) VFA; (d) S; (e) F; (f) S/F.
Figure 6. Marshall test results. Evolution of (a) Va; (b) VMA; (c) VFA; (d) S; (e) F; (f) S/F.
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Figure 7. ITS test results.
Figure 7. ITS test results.
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Figure 8. Cantabro test results.
Figure 8. Cantabro test results.
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Figure 9. Resilient modulus test results. (a) 10 °C, (b) 20 °C, (c) 30 °C.
Figure 9. Resilient modulus test results. (a) 10 °C, (b) 20 °C, (c) 30 °C.
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Figure 10. Permanent deformation test results.
Figure 10. Permanent deformation test results.
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Figure 11. Fatigue test results.
Figure 11. Fatigue test results.
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Table 1. Properties of asphalt binder AC 60–70.
Table 1. Properties of asphalt binder AC 60–70.
TestStandardUnitRequirementResult
Specific gravityAASHTO T 228--1.024
Penetration (25 °C, 100 g, 5 s)ASTM D-5dmm60–7061.5
Softening pointASTM D-36°C46–5446.6
Absolute viscosity (60 °C)ASTM D-4402Pa-s140–240175
Ductility (25 °C, 5 cm/min)ASTM D-113cmMinimum 100122
Ignition pointASTM D-92°CMinimum 232267
Mass lossASTM D 2872%Maximum 0.800.17
Table 2. Aggregate properties.
Table 2. Aggregate properties.
TestStandardRequirementResult
Specific gravity of fine aggregateAASHTO T 84-2.580
Absorption of fine aggregateAASHTO T 84-1.35%
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate AASHTO T 85-2.623
Absorption of coarse aggregateAASHTO T 85-1.77%
Fractured particles (1 side)ASTM D582185% minimum92.2%
Soundness (magnesium sulfate)AASHTO T 10418.0% maximum4.8%
Plasticity indexASTM D4318Not plasticNot plastic
10% of fines (dry resistance)DNER-ME 096100 kN minimum266.3 kN
10% of fines (wet resistance)DNER-ME 09675 kN minimum234.7 kN
Micro-DevalAASHTO T 32720% maximum7.3%
Abrasion in Los Angeles machineAASHTO T 9625% maximum18.0%
Table 3. Results of the rheological characterization tests.
Table 3. Results of the rheological characterization tests.
Temperature (°C)BC/AC (%)
051015
|G*|/sinδ (kPa)-Unaged asphalt binder
582.424.484.704.72
641.111.982.742.80
700.550.991.331.40
|G*|/sinδ (kPa)-After RTFO test
584.757.658.559.11
642.263.164.194.68
701.141.762.392.97
|G*| sinδ (kPa)-After RTFOT + PAV (Pressure Aging Vessel)
166253608462016812
194618462147584989
223252351536603890
Table 4. Particle size distribution of aggregates for HMA-19 [62].
Table 4. Particle size distribution of aggregates for HMA-19 [62].
Sieve (mm)1912.59.54.752.00.4250.1800.075Bottom
Passing (%)10087.579.057.037.019.512.56.00.0
Retained (%)012.58.522.020.017.57.06.56.0
Table 5. ANOVA analysis of Marshall test results.
Table 5. ANOVA analysis of Marshall test results.
AC (%)FT
Va (%)VMA (%)VFA (%)S (kN)F (mm)S/F (kN/mm)
4.50.892.610.2811.291.801.76
5.00.161.710.0111.620.254.98
5.50.120.010.238.024.507.86
6.022.4714.222.832.031.000.05
Table 6. ANOVA-Resilient modulus test.
Table 6. ANOVA-Resilient modulus test.
Analysis10 °C20 °C30 °C
2.5 Hz5 Hz10 Hz2.5 Hz5 Hz10 Hz2.5 Hz5 Hz10 Hz
FT
Control vs. BC/AC = 10%20.914.114.810.07.28.012.213.714.2
Table 7. a, b, σ6, and σ7 parameters.
Table 7. a, b, σ6, and σ7 parameters.
MixtureVTM (%)R-Squared (r2)abσ6 (kPa)σ7 (kPa)
Control 4.71 ± 0.110.9693839.7−0.224173.9103.8
BC/AC = 10%4.93 ± 0.190.9714444.8−0.224201.3120.2
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MDPI and ACS Style

Chaves-Pabón, S.B.; Rondón-Quintana, H.A.; Bastidas-Martínez, J.G. Mechanical Performance of a Hot Mix Asphalt Modified with Biochar Obtained from Oil Palm Mesocarp Fiber. Infrastructures 2024, 9, 156. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090156

AMA Style

Chaves-Pabón SB, Rondón-Quintana HA, Bastidas-Martínez JG. Mechanical Performance of a Hot Mix Asphalt Modified with Biochar Obtained from Oil Palm Mesocarp Fiber. Infrastructures. 2024; 9(9):156. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090156

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chaves-Pabón, Saieth Baudilio, Hugo Alexander Rondón-Quintana, and Juan Gabriel Bastidas-Martínez. 2024. "Mechanical Performance of a Hot Mix Asphalt Modified with Biochar Obtained from Oil Palm Mesocarp Fiber" Infrastructures 9, no. 9: 156. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090156

APA Style

Chaves-Pabón, S. B., Rondón-Quintana, H. A., & Bastidas-Martínez, J. G. (2024). Mechanical Performance of a Hot Mix Asphalt Modified with Biochar Obtained from Oil Palm Mesocarp Fiber. Infrastructures, 9(9), 156. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures9090156

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