Are There Differences in Motor Coordination Among Spanish Primary School Students?
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Participants
2.2. Study Variables
2.3. Tools
Procedure for Applying the Test
- Students should be allowed to practice on the circuit before moving on to the final test.
- Start of the assessment: Once the student has recovered from any fatigue from the previous test, he or she must stand in the starting area (Figure 1) in a static, bipedal position, and the evaluator will stand at the height of the starting box, give the starting signal, and move laterally onto the circuit (Figure 1).
- Test development: During the test, participants may be reminded of the order of the tasks, but under no circumstances will comments or corrections be made regarding their execution. If a student fails, they must wait two minutes before retaking the test. A student is considered to have failed if they make an error in direction or do not perform any of the tasks in the established order. The evaluator will objectively observe and grade each of the seven course tasks according to the evaluation criteria [7]. The evaluator will record the score for each task.
2.4. Ethics
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Locomotor Coordination Results
3.2. Visuomotor Coordination Results
3.2.1. Foot Object Control Coordination Results
3.2.2. Hand Object Control Coordination Results
Boys | Girls | Main Effects | Interactions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SP | Yes | No | Yes | No | Gender F | Age F | SP F | F | |
Age | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||
HOCC (2–8) | 6 | 4.31 ± 1.27 | 2.92 ± 1.18 | 3.96 ± 1.34 | 2.68 ± 0.88 | 22.263 *** | 48.319 *** | 49.776 *** | (2) 11.419 ** (3) 2.756 * |
7 | 5.50 ± 1.34 | 3.60 ± 0.54 | 4.50 ± 1.44 | 4.07 ± 1.07 | |||||
8 | 6.05 ± 1.37 | 5.35 ± 1.00 | 4.89 ± 1.22 | 4.82 ± 1.28 | |||||
9 | 6.71 ± 1.25 | 5.66 ± 1.27 | 5.47 ± 1.34 | 4.88 ± 1.56 | |||||
10 | 6.73 ± 1.02 | 6.33 ± 1.00 | 5.44 ± 1.05 | 5.35 ± 1.08 | |||||
11 | 6.82 ± 1.22 | 4.40 ± 1.14 | 5.83 ± 1.19 | 5.55 ± 1.50 |
3.3. Global Motor Coordination Results
Boys | Girls | Main Effects | Interactions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SP | Yes | No | Yes | No | Gender F | Age F | SP F | F | |
Age | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||
GMC (2–8) | 6 | 17.40 ± 3.98 | 13.23 ± 3.13 | 15.88 ± 3.59 | 11.42 ± 3.32 | 41.325 *** | 50.894 *** | 58.858 *** | (2) 12.206 ** (3) 2.945 * |
7 | 20.66 ± 3.94 | 15.60 ± 0.89 | 17.13 ± 3.82 | 16.50 ± 3.54 | |||||
8 | 22.51 ± 3.45 | 20.21 ± 3.01 | 18.71 ± 3.11 | 18.58 ± 3.80 | |||||
9 | 23.89 ± 3.60 | 21.23 ± 3.08 | 19.94 ± 3.68 | 18.61 ± 3.63 | |||||
10 | 23.67 ± 2.54 | 21.55 ± 3.77 | 20.00 ± 2.95 | 19.20 ± 3.76 | |||||
11 | 24.26 ± 3.61 | 17.00 ± 4.06 | 20.27 ± 3.28 | 19.00 ± 3.64 |
4. Discussion
4.1. Locomotor Coordination
4.2. Visuomotor Coordination
4.2.1. Foot Object Control Coordination
4.2.2. Hand Object Control Coordination
4.3. Global Motor Coordination
5. Conclusions
- Motor coordination skills (LC, VC, FOCC, HOCC, and GMC) improve significantly with age, especially in visuomotor coordination (VC) and hand-object control coordination (HOCC). This is consistent with neurodevelopmental theories that suggest a progressive refinement of motor skills during Primary Education. Therefore, as practical implications, it should be noted that schools should implement age-specific motor skill development programs, with an emphasis on VC and HOCC in the older grades (9–11 years). Early intervention (6–8 years) can address deficiencies in fundamental skills such as locomotor coordination (LC).
- Boys outperformed girls in VC, FOCC, HOCC, and GMC, whereas no gender differences were observed in LC. This suggests that gender differences are task-specific, possibly influenced by activity preferences (e.g., boys may participate more in ball sports) and sociocultural factors (e.g., gender-differentiated play opportunities). Based on these results, it is suggested that physical education curricula should promote inclusive activities to reduce gaps in object control skills. Furthermore, girls’ participation in FOCC/HOCC-oriented sports (e.g., soccer, basketball) should be encouraged.
- Children who participated in sports showed superior motor coordination across all variables studied, with notable benefits in CV and FOCC. Structured physical activity appears to be an important factor in the development of complex skills such as visuomotor integration. Policy implications include the integration of extracurricular sports into school curricula, especially for disadvantaged populations. In practice, sports with high visuomotor demands (e.g., tennis, basketball) should be prioritized in physical education.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
MC | Motor coordination |
LC | Locomotor coordination |
VC | Visuomotor coordination |
FOCC | Foot object control coordination |
HOCC | Hand object control coordination |
GMC | Global motor coordination |
BMI | Body Mass Index |
MANCOVA | Multivariate analysis of covariance |
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Test Dimension (Range) | Sub Test (Range) |
---|---|
Locomotor coordination (LC; 3–12) | 1st Vertical jump (1–4) |
2nd Rotation about the longitudinal axis (1–4) | |
3rd Slalom race (1–4) | |
Visuomotor coordination (VC; 4–16) | Foot object control coordination (FOCC; 2–8) 4th Precision strike (1–4) 5th Dribbling the ball + slalom (1–4) |
Hand object control coordination (HOCC; 2–8) 6th Precision throw (1–4) 7th Bounce the ball + slalom (1–4) | |
Global motor coordination (GMC; 7–28) | LC + VC |
Height (m) | Weight (kg) | BMI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | |
Boys | 6 | 1.19 ± 0.05 | 22.48 ± 4.09 | 15.69 ± 2.24 |
7 | 1.25 ± 0.05 | 27.01 ± 4.99 | 17.06 ± 2.41 | |
8 | 1.31 ± 0.07 | 31.26 ± 8.86 | 17.91 ± 3.53 | |
9 | 1.35 ± 0.06 | 32.68 ± 6.10 | 17.64 ± 2.56 | |
10 | 1.44 ± 0.07 | 39.83 ± 8.27 | 19.05 ± 2.87 | |
11 | 1.49 ± 0.07 | 43.53 ± 7.95 | 19.35 ± 2.84 | |
Girls | 6 | 1.20 ± 0.05 | 23.49 ± 4.04 | 16.06 ± 2.00 |
7 | 1.23 ± 0.05 | 28.08 ± 6.29 | 18.23 ± 3.32 | |
8 | 1.30 ± 0.07 | 29.85 ± 6.77 | 17.47 ± 2.74 | |
9 | 1.35 ± 0.07 | 32.82 ± 6.38 | 17.78 ± 2.75 | |
10 | 1.41 ± 0.07 | 39.34 ± 8.69 | 19.51 ± 3.37 | |
11 | 1.48 ± 0.08 | 42.05 ± 7.15 | 19.02 ± 2.71 |
Boys | Girls | Main Effects | Interactions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SP | Yes | No | Yes | No | Gender F | Age F | SP F | F | |
Age | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||
LC (3–12) | 6 | 8.00 ± 2.23 | 6.92 ± 1.55 | 8.29 ± 2.16 | 6.21 ± 2.50 | 29.908 *** | 18.586 *** | (1) 2.420 * | |
7 | 9.57 ± 1.79 | 8.40 ± 0.54 | 8.97 ± 2.17 | 8.71 ± 1.93 | |||||
8 | 10.08 ± 1.59 | 9.42 ± 1.78 | 9.10 ± 1.57 | 9.52 ± 1.94 | |||||
9 | 10.52 ± 1.57 | 9.71 ± 1.67 | 9.54 ± 1.83 | 9.72 ± 1.56 | |||||
10 | 10.13 ± 1.25 | 9.55 ± 1.81 | 9,73 ± 1.64 | 9.25 ± 1.86 | |||||
11 | 10.52 ± 1.59 | 8.40 ± 2.40 | 9.81 ± 1.65 | 8.77 ± 1.48 |
Boys | Girls | Main Effects | Interactions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SP | Yes | No | Yes | No | Gender F | Age F | SP F | F | |
Age | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||
VC (4–16) | 6 | 9.40 ± 2.35 | 6.30 ± 2.39 | 7.59 ± 2.22 | 5.21 ± 1.22 | 73.931 *** | 47.393 *** | 72.313 *** | (1) 11.744 * (2) 19.652 *** (3) 2.290 * (4) 2.560 * |
7 | 11.09 ± 2.39 | 7.20 ± 0.83 | 8.15 ± 2.02 | 7.87 ± 1.92 | |||||
8 | 12.42 ± 2.32 | 10.78 ± 2.22 | 9.60 ± 2.24 | 9.05 ± 2.43 | |||||
9 | 13.36 ± 2.45 | 11.52 ± 2.31 | 10.40 ± 2.24 | 8.88 ± 2.49 | |||||
10 | 13.54 ± 1.77 | 12.00 ± 2.54 | 10.40 ± 2.01 | 9.95 ± 2.30 | |||||
11 | 13.74 ± 2.38 | 8.60 ± 2.19 | 10.46 ± 2.13 | 10.22 ± 2.48 |
Boys | Girls | Main Effects | Interactions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SP | Yes | No | Yes | No | Gender F | Age F | SP F | F | |
Age | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||
FOCC (2–8) | 6 | 5.08 ± 1.54 | 3.38 ± 1.60 | 3.62 ± 1.11 | 2.52 ± 0.61 | 26.069 *** | - | 59.431 *** | (2) 18.528 *** (4) 2.2742 * |
7 | 5.59 ± 1.34 | 3.60 ± 0.89 | 3.65 ± 0.90 | 3.71 ± 1.13 | |||||
8 | 6.37 ± 1.23 | 5.42 ± 1.34 | 4.71 ± 1.31 | 4.23 ± 1.60 | |||||
9 | 6.65 ± 1.41 | 5.85 ± 1.15 | 4.92 ± 1.21 | 4.00 ± 1.18 | |||||
10 | 6.81 ± 1.05 | 5.66 ± 1.65 | 4.82 ± 1.26 | 4.60 ± 1.53 | |||||
11 | 6.92 ± 1.39 | 4.20 ± 1.30 | 4.62 ± 1.48 | 4.66 ± 1.22 |
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Fernández-Vázquez, R.; Barcala-Furelos, M.; Cachón-Zagalaz, J.; Arufe-Giráldez, V.; Mecías-Calvo, M.; Navarro-Patón, R. Are There Differences in Motor Coordination Among Spanish Primary School Students? J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10, 275. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030275
Fernández-Vázquez R, Barcala-Furelos M, Cachón-Zagalaz J, Arufe-Giráldez V, Mecías-Calvo M, Navarro-Patón R. Are There Differences in Motor Coordination Among Spanish Primary School Students? Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 2025; 10(3):275. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030275
Chicago/Turabian StyleFernández-Vázquez, Ricardo, Martín Barcala-Furelos, Javier Cachón-Zagalaz, Víctor Arufe-Giráldez, Marcos Mecías-Calvo, and Rubén Navarro-Patón. 2025. "Are There Differences in Motor Coordination Among Spanish Primary School Students?" Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 10, no. 3: 275. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030275
APA StyleFernández-Vázquez, R., Barcala-Furelos, M., Cachón-Zagalaz, J., Arufe-Giráldez, V., Mecías-Calvo, M., & Navarro-Patón, R. (2025). Are There Differences in Motor Coordination Among Spanish Primary School Students? Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 10(3), 275. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030275