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Article

Perception of University Students Regarding Gender-Based Violence: Identification, Analysis and Detection

by
Antonio Daniel García-Rojas
1,*,
Angel Hernando Gómez
2,
Delia Montero-Fernández
3 and
Susana Rodríguez-Vargas
4,5
1
Department of Pedagogy, University of Huelva, 21071 Huelva, Spain
2
Department of Social, Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Huelva, 21071 Huelva, Spain
3
Metropolitan School District of Lawrence Township, Indianapolis, IN 46220, USA
4
SusanaRodVar Integral Psychology Center, 41018 Seville, Spain
5
Doctoral Program Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, University of Huelva, 21071 Huelva, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sexes 2024, 5(4), 758-768; https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes5040048
Submission received: 27 October 2024 / Revised: 5 December 2024 / Accepted: 9 December 2024 / Published: 12 December 2024
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The general objective of the study is to study the degree of gender-based violence that exists among students at the University of Huelva. The sample of 678 students (540 women and 138 men) answered an anonymous and voluntary questionnaire, which was made up of several validated questionnaires. The results show that many of the students have rarely suffered or carried out any type of violent behavior in their relationships, although there is a very low percentage who claim to have suffered gender-based violence, so we can affirm that it is a phenomenon present to a greater or lesser extent. It is observed that students easily relate physical aggressions to gender-based violence while they hesitate to relate psychological aggressions to it. This difficulty can be supported by other studies that state that adolescents believe that some actions of psychological violence—such as being jealous—are simply signs of love. This is compounded by the large number of romantic myths that are increasingly spread through social networks, media, family patterns, etc. More educational interventions are therefore needed to prevent these outcomes from leading to unhealthy relationships disguised as excessive romanticism.

1. Introduction

In the twenty-first century, gender-based violence remains a pressing human rights issue that necessitates urgent societal attention. Consequently, research must illuminate the hidden facets of this violence, uncovering its silences and amplifying its voices [1]. By doing so, it is possible to identify and mitigate the risks associated with gender-based violence at an early stage. Some studies suggest that greater visibility of the student population and a closer examination of their exposure to information on gender-based violence are necessary [2]. Recent studies are emerging that focus on gender-based violence and university students. Consequently, a review of the relevant literature reveals a growing body of research drawing on diverse perspectives and contexts.
A comprehensive review of twenty-two articles on gender-based violence perpetrated against female university students, conducted by Tasqueto Tassinari et al., (2021) [3], reveals a pervasive pattern of such violence. The study further indicates that the manifestations of gender-based violence are diverse, encompassing physical, psychological, sexual, and economic forms, and are influenced by a range of sociocultural factors. Notwithstanding the evident prevalence of gender-based violence within the university student population, the university community exhibits significant challenges in conceptualizing and perceiving this phenomenon, thereby rendering it a relatively invisible issue. Even when instances of gender-based violence are formally recognized, they are often addressed in a superficial and partial manner [4]. For instance, a Colombian university study revealed a prevalence of sexist beliefs and a tolerance of violent behavior among male students. Furthermore, the study highlighted the normalization of such beliefs and behaviors among female students, a phenomenon attributable to the socially constructed gender roles that assign women domestic responsibilities, primary childcare, and other traditional roles [5]. Similarly, a study involving thousands of Ecuadorian university students revealed a widespread lack of awareness regarding the extent and complexity of gender-based violence, as well as a higher tolerance for such violence among male students [6]. Furthermore, as highlighted by Bonilla-Algovia and Rivas-Rivero, (2021) [7], this dearth of knowledge concerning gender-based violence is widespread across the Ibero-American university sphere. Although the specific manifestations may differ between countries, the study underscores a consistent pattern of distorted beliefs about gender roles and violence, particularly prevalent among male students. Notably, the sample for this study comprised over two thousand aspiring teachers.
On the other hand, a study examining the perceptions of university students from northern Spain across various academic disciplines revealed a prevalence of misconceptions about gender-based violence [8]. Despite these misconceptions, most students acknowledged the severity and importance of this issue, advocating for public awareness campaigns and support from health professionals to facilitate victim reporting and improve their well-being. Another study [9] indicates that attitudes towards gender-based violence vary according to gender and age. The research highlights a greater awareness among adult women and students pursuing degrees in Health Sciences and Social Work, particularly those who identify with the feminist movement.
In the ongoing struggle against harassment and discrimination, other authors [10] emphasize the crucial role of male solidarity and support in addressing sexist and violent behavior towards women. The study underscores the importance of male allyship and feminist advocacy as significant steps forward in this cause. Moreover, all citizens, regardless of their expertise, are called upon to actively participate and contribute to the fight against gender-based violence and sexist patterns [11].
Regarding the reporting of gender-based violence, other research [12] indicates that over 60% of Spanish university students have either personally experienced or are aware of instances of sexual violence within their educational institutions. Despite this prevalence, the authors highlight the alarmingly low reporting rates for such incidents. As highlighted by Barreto, (2017) [13] in a study of four public denunciations at a Mexican university, the decision to report gender-based violence often involves navigating a complex process of personal, social, and institutional silence, ultimately culminating in a struggle for recognition. Additionally, another study [14] identifies a range of resources, beyond formal complaints, that can aid victims in their emotional recovery from violent experiences. These resources include family support networks, psychological counseling, group therapy with fellow survivors, the development of personal hobbies, and gender sensitivity training.
In efforts to prevent gender-based violence within university contexts, the work of Trujillo Cristoffanini and Pastor Gosálbez, (2021) [15] is noteworthy. Their research, conducted across various Chilean universities, highlights the crucial role of educational institutions in combating gender-based violence. By providing formal and informative support networks, these institutions can empower students to develop autonomy and take decisive steps to end abusive relationships. Similarly, participation in gender training programs has been shown to increase students’ awareness of gender-based violence [16]. Research further emphasizes the importance of implementing diverse awareness-raising, prevention, and specific training programs targeting young university students to address violence in romantic relationships [17]. Likewise, other research [18] suggests that universities can implement measures to safeguard students and mitigate their insecurities and risks of experiencing violence [19]. Similarly, university students in a SWOT analysis primarily identified threats, including a lack of investment and social responses to a globally concerning phenomenon [20].
Violence is often learned through direct observation of behaviors exhibited by significant role models, such as parents, siblings, or close acquaintances [21], including caregivers. Conversely, another study [22] indicates that individuals with higher attachment anxiety and lower avoidance tendencies are more likely to overestimate male aggression. A significant proportion of individuals who have experienced violence endured it during childhood, either as direct victims or as indirect witnesses of maltreatment [23]. These children often suffer negative physical, psychological, and emotional consequences and require substantial and ongoing social support for their recovery [24]. A study of adolescents confirms that a higher percentage of individuals are witnesses to violence rather than direct victims, suggesting that they are more likely to recognize signs of violence when not personally involved [25].
Regarding gender differences in the perpetration of violence, research indicates that males exhibit a higher propensity for violence, particularly during adolescence. Studies on the prevalence of violence in intimate relationships among young university students reveal that women experience higher rates of emotional, physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, as well as personal devaluation [26]. However, other studies [27,28,29] suggest that bidirectional violence is the most common pattern in young couples.
The root of gender-based violence, as an alarming phenomenon, often lies in the pervasive societal influence of machismo [30] and the patriarchal system. This can lead to the observation and normalization of macho attitudes, which can contribute to the perpetration of violence [31]. It is important to note that violence can occur regardless of sexual orientation and can manifest in various forms within all types of relationships [27,32]. While physical violence (hitting, pushing, biting, kicking, etc.) is often the most recognizable form, violence can also manifest in other ways, such as sexual, verbal (insulting, threatening, slandering, mocking, etc.), or psychological (ridiculing, belittling, blackmailing, denigrating, controlling, scaring, etc.) violence [33]. These forms of violence can emerge at any stage of a relationship, either individually or in combination [34]. Jealousy, a commonly normalized and misattributed manifestation of love, is a prominent example of violence [35]. This behavior is particularly prevalent in adolescent and young adult relationships, where distrust can lead to controlling behaviors such as monitoring social media [36]. Emotionally dependent victims often allow their privacy to be violated [37]. These behaviors stem from inexperience in early relationships and the integration of erroneous beliefs about love, which can lead to the development of undesirable behaviors, permissiveness, acceptance, and even idealization [38]. The idealization of romantic love, characterized by the pursuit of perfection, eternal passion, and the concept of soulmates, is a risk factor for gender-based violence [39]. Individuals with low self-esteem are particularly susceptible to internalizing these irrational beliefs [40]. The pervasive influence of these romantic myths extends into adulthood, with the belief that “love conquers all” often leading to the endurance of gender-based violence, particularly among women [41]. Media and cultural products, such as books and films, contribute to the perpetuation of these harmful ideals by promoting a romanticized and sexist model of love and relationships [42].
In summary, gender-based violence has evolved significantly from the previous century, transitioning from a denied and invisible issue to a recognized and publicly acknowledged problem [43]. To provide empirical data on this critical issue, the primary objective of this research is to investigate the perception of gender-based violence among University of Huelva students. Specific objectives include identifying the predominant types of gender-based violence within university relationships, analyzing students’ ability to recognize gender-based violence, and examining potential gender differences in the experience and perpetration of violence.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample

The sample consisted of 678 participants, of whom 540 (79.6%) were female and 138 (29.4%) were male. The instrument was administered to students from seven different degree programs at the University of Huelva: Early Childhood Education (n = 90, 13.2%), Psychology (n = 265, 39.1%), Social Work (n = 138, 20.35%), Labor Relations and Human Resources (n = 17, 2.5%), Sports Science (n = 84, 12.39%), Social Education (n = 33, 4.86%), and Law (n = 51, 7.6%). Regarding nationality, 665 participants (98.2%) were Spanish, while the remaining 13 (1.8%) were Brazilian, Moroccan, or Romanian.

2.2. Techniques and Instruments Used

Data collection was conducted using four different instruments designed to achieve the research objectives: Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI) Questionnaire [44], a reduced version of the original CADRI [45]; Questionnaire on Perception of Abuse in Adolescence [46]; Dominance Tactics and Jealousy Tactics Scale [47]; Self-diagnosis of Domestic Violence Questionnaire [48].

2.3. Data Collection and Analysis Procedure

To collect the data, a random selection of students from the Faculty of Education Sciences, Psychology, and Sports Sciences at the University of Huelva, as well as other faculties at the El Carmen campus, was made.
Quantitative data analysis techniques were employed to extract information from the questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and correlation techniques were utilized, implemented through the SPSS statistical package. The quantitative data analysis was conducted in two phases. Firstly, descriptive statistics were applied to organize and present the data clearly and concisely, facilitating the selection of subsequent analyses, including correlation tests between variables. Secondly, the Chi-square test was used to identify potential gender differences in specific variables.

3. Results

To conduct the analysis, the research objectives served as a guide. Initially, the analysis focused on objective 3, using separate tables (Table 1 and Table 2) to examine the prevalence of intimate partner violence and any gender differences.
Upon examining the data presented in Table 1 and Table 2, subtle differences can be observed in the mean values. Considering that the Likert-type scale used for the questionnaire items ranges from 0 (never) to 3 (often), the mean values, falling between 0 and 1, indicate that respondents generally selected options between “never” and “rarely.”
The findings indicate that participants generally reported either not experiencing or rarely experiencing partner violence, or having experienced or rarely experienced such violence. The items with the highest mean scores were “My partner brought up something bad that I had done in the past” (M = 1.00) and “I brought up something bad that my partner had done in the past” (M = 1.16), with the latter demonstrating a slightly higher mean. The second highest-scoring items were “Spoke to me in a hostile or offensive tone of voice” (M = 0.88) and “I spoke to him/her in a hostile or offensive tone of voice” (M = 1.04), with a more noticeable difference in the mean scores, suggesting that participants were more likely to engage in such behavior than to experience it. The lowest mean scores were observed for items such as “He/she pushed or shoved me” (M = 0.08) and “I pushed or shook my partner” (M = 0.09), as well as “My partner slapped or pulled my hair” (M = 0.04) and “I slapped or pulled his/her hair” (M = 0.05). Interestingly, the only item with a higher mean score for experiencing violence was “Did something to make me jealous” (M = 0.65). Although the frequency of experiencing these types of situations is low, it is worth noting that a significant number of participants, as indicated in both tables, selected the maximum value of “often” for almost all variables, except for “My partner slapped me or pulled my hair” and “I slapped him/her or pulled his/her hair.”
Regarding standard deviation, the first five items exhibit values relatively close to the mean, suggesting a wider range of opinions. In contrast, the last two items have values significantly lower than the mean, indicating a higher degree of consensus, with most participants selecting “never”. Notably, Table 1 generally presents higher standard deviation values, suggesting a greater diversity of opinions compared to Table 2. Subsequently, the aforementioned items were analyzed by gender percentage. The results indicate a higher proportion of females reporting having experienced some form of partner violence. However, it is also observed that a higher percentage of females perpetrate these actions compared to males. This discrepancy may be partially attributed to the skewed gender distribution of the sample, with a preponderance of female participants.
The third questionnaire, to some extent, aligns with the first in that it outlines scenarios indicative of various forms of violence. The items are categorized based on whether the individual is the perpetrator or the victim. For data entry purposes, a Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often) was employed. To facilitate analysis, the most relevant items were selected and divided into two tables (Table 3 and Table 4) to distinguish between self-reported perpetration and victimization. Statistical analysis was then conducted on these data.
An analysis of the data presented in the two tables reveals a similar average frequency of both perpetration and victimization of the behaviors in question. The four items with the highest mean values are “My partner has been jealous of other boys/girlfriends”, “My partner has been jealous and suspicious of my friends”, “I have been jealous of other boys/girlfriends”, and “I have been jealous and suspicious of my boyfriend/girlfriend’s friends”. A mean value of 1 indicates that the majority of respondents reported rarely experiencing or perpetrating these behaviors. Further analysis of the minimum and maximum values demonstrates a range of responses, from “never” to “very often”. The standard deviation values for all items are relatively close to the mean, suggesting a wide range of opinions among respondents. To delve deeper into the data, a gender-based analysis was conducted. As observed in the first questionnaire, females reported a higher prevalence of both experiencing and perpetrating these behaviors. However, a significant finding is the higher incidence of female students experiencing jealousy from their partners compared to male students. For example, 6.7% of female respondents reported “frequently” experiencing jealousy and suspicion from their partners regarding their friends, compared to 3.4% of male respondents. Similarly, 21.1% of female respondents reported “sometimes” experiencing jealousy from their partners regarding other romantic interests, compared to 12% of male respondents. To further explore gender differences in the perpetration and victimization of violent behaviors, Table 5 presents the data from the most relevant items of the fourth questionnaire. For this table, a Likert-type scale was used, with values of 0 for “yes”, 1 for “sometimes”, 2 for “rarely”, and 3 for “no.”.
As can be seen in the table, the mean is between the values 2 and 3, with the highest value corresponding to the item “Has your partner hit you with his/her hands, pulled things when angry or arguing?” with a value of 2.82. The standard deviation is not too close to the mean, so there was not much asymmetry in opinions.
If we analyze these same questions by sex, we obtain the same conclusion as in the previous questionnaires, i.e., women have a higher percentage of having suffered some of the situations described. However, in the item “Do you feel that your partner is controlling you “for love”?” 17.4% of men answered “sometimes”, compared to 8.3% of women.
With regard to the first specific objective, which is aimed at finding out the types of violence that most predominate in the university population, it can be seen that in the three questionnaires of actions and situations of violence suffered or carried out, psychological and sexual violence stand out, with physical violence having a lower frequency and percentage.
Next, we will analyze the second objective of the research, which focuses on recognizing whether the students are able to distinguish the behaviors that designate gender violence as such. For this purpose, we will focus on the data obtained from the second questionnaire in the following Table 6.
As illustrated in the table, the mean values range between 2 and 3, with the highest value associated with the item “Has your partner hit you with their hands, pulled things when angry or arguing?” at 2.82. The standard deviation is not significantly different from the mean, indicating a relatively low level of variability in responses. A gender-based analysis of these questions yields similar results to the previous questionnaires, with females reporting higher rates of victimization. However, an interesting finding emerges in the item “Do you feel that your partner is controlling you ‘for love?’” where 17.4% of male respondents selected “sometimes”, compared to 8.3% of female respondents. Regarding the first specific objective of identifying the most prevalent types of violence among university students, the analysis of the three questionnaires indicates that psychological and sexual violence are more common than physical violence.
Ensuing, we will turn our attention to the second research objective, which focuses on assessing students’ ability to recognize behaviors indicative of gender-based violence. To this end, we will analyze the data presented in Table 6.

4. Discussion

The analysis of the data reveals that a significant number of university students have experienced or are currently experiencing gender-based violence within their intimate relationships. Although many respondents indicated “rarely” for various items, it is important to consider that these behaviors may occur repeatedly or in conjunction with other actions, collectively constituting clear signs of violence. These findings align with recent research [49], which reported that 41.5% of respondents had experienced intimate partner violence. Similarly, a study conducted two decades ago [50] indicated that both male and female participants reported experiencing physical violence (approximately 7%) and psychological violence (approximately 95%). The predominant forms of violence experienced by university students were psychological and verbal [51,52], as evidenced by the results in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5. Items related to physical aggression generally received lower frequency ratings, both for perpetration and victimization. For instance, in Table 5, the item “Has your partner hit you with their hands, pulled things when angry or arguing?” received a mean value closer to “no”, while items related to psychological aggression had higher mean values, indicating more frequent occurrence. These findings corroborate a study on intimate partner violence among Spanish university students [53], which also employed the CADRI to assess variables and found a higher prevalence of psychological violence compared to physical violence. The study emphasized the significant harm of verbal-emotional aggression or psychological abuse, highlighting its potential to predict subsequent physical violence.
Regarding the experience of violence, the research indicates that women are more likely to be victims, as men are more likely to perpetrate physical and emotional abuse [54]. However, it is perceived that women may exhibit more dominant and controlling behaviors, aligning with findings from previous studies [22,26]. A study exploring attitudes and behaviors towards gender-based violence among young university students suggests that women are perceived as more dominant and jealous than men, while also being more frequently victimized by dominance and jealousy [55]. Nevertheless, this research also highlights that women experience higher rates of jealousy from their partners. This is evident in the item “My partner has been jealous of other boys/girls”, where 21.1% of women selected “sometimes”, compared to only 12% of men. This disparity represents one of the most significant gender differences observed in the study.
When considering the recognition of gender-based violence, participants were more likely to identify physical aggression and intimidation as forms of violence. This is because psychological violence is often less perceptible to both perpetrators and victims compared to physical or sexual violence [56]. Moreover, prioritizing physical violence as the most serious form can lead to the underestimation and normalization of other forms of violence [57]. A common misconception is that gender-based violence occurs primarily within marriages or adult relationships. However, studies like this one demonstrate that this is not the case. In young relationships, psychological violence is often the most prevalent form, making it difficult to recognize and report, thus allowing it to escalate into physical aggression. Once physical violence occurs, victims may find it challenging to seek help or leave the abusive relationship due to the psychological impact and emotional dependency on the perpetrator [28].
For these reasons, it is imperative to implement preventative measures at an early age and create resources tailored to different life stages that comprehensively define gender-based violence and highlight its various manifestations. Often, only the most common forms of violence are recognized, while subtle signs that may indicate future violent behavior are overlooked. As noted previously [16,17,58], inclusive sex and gender education programs from early childhood are essential for preventing gender-based violence. Teachers and social educators play a crucial role in implementing such programs as part of a multidisciplinary team.

5. Conclusions

The results of this study underline the prevalence of gender-based violence among university students. Psychological and verbal abuse were the most common forms of violence, underlining the need for greater awareness and understanding of these less visible forms of harm. In addition, the study revealed significant gender disparities in both the perpetration and victimization of violence. While women were more likely to experience certain forms of violence, men were also found to engage in abusive behaviors. The research also shed light on the challenges of recognizing and addressing gender-based violence. Many participants showed limited knowledge of various forms of violence, in particular psychological and emotional abuse. This suggests the need for comprehensive education and awareness campaigns to promote healthier relationships and challenge harmful gender norms. Future research should aim to recruit a more representative sample, as the current study primarily involved female participants.
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended to prioritize comprehensive sex and gender education. This includes implementing school-based programs that address healthy relationships, consent, and gender equality. Additionally, universities should establish accessible support services for students who have experienced or are experiencing gender-based violence. Furthermore, training in bystander intervention can empower individuals to recognize and respond to situations of potential or actual violence.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.D.G.-R., D.M.-F. and S.R.-V.; methodology, A.D.G.-R. and S.R.-V.; software A.D.G.-R. and A.H.G.; validation, A.D.G.-R., A.H.G. and S.R.-V.; formal analysis, A.D.G.-R. and S.R.-V.; investigation, A.D.G.-R., D.M.-F. and S.R.-V.; resources, A.D.G.-R., A.H.G., D.M.-F. and S.R.-V.; data curation, A.D.G.-R. and S.R.-V.; writing—original draft preparation, A.D.G.-R., A.H.G., D.M.-F. and S.R.-V.; writing—review and editing, A.D.G.-R., A.H.G., D.M.-F. and S.R.-V.; visualization, A.D.G.-R.; supervision, A.D.G.-R., A.H.G., D.M.-F. and S.R.-V.; project administration, A.D.G.-R. and A.H.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of School of Education, Psychology and Sports Sciences of the University of Huelva (PSISOC-10924 on 01/12/2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Violence suffered in the intimate partner relationship.
Table 1. Violence suffered in the intimate partner relationship.
My Partner…NMinimumMaximumMeanStandard Deviation
Brought up something bad I had done in the past.678031.000.955
Spoke to me in a hostile or offensive tone of voice.678030.880.884
Did something to make me jealous.678030.650.846
Threatened to leave the relationship.678030.470.806
Kissed me when I didn’t want to.678030.400.812
Fondled my breasts, genitals when I didn’t want him to.678030.310.561
Forced me to engage in sexual activity when I didn’t want to.678030.300.735
Threw an object at me.678030.190.574
Pushed or shoved me.678030.090.417
Slapped me or pulled my hair.678020.040.237
Source: Own elaboration.
Table 2. Violence perpetrated by the person in the intimate partner relationship.
Table 2. Violence perpetrated by the person in the intimate partner relationship.
I…NMinimumMaximumMeanStandard Deviation
Brought up something bad my partner had done in the past.678031.160.980
Spoke to my partner in a hostile or offensive tone of voice.678031.040.925
Did something to make my partner jealous.678030.580.763
Threatened to leave the relationship.678030.490.774
Kissed my partner when he/she didn’t want to.678030.440.717
Fondled his/her breasts, genitals when he/she didn’t want me to.678030.400.523
Forced my partner to engage in sexual activity when he/she didn’t want to.678030.120.455
Threw an object at him/her.678030.120.451
Pushed or shoved him/her.678030.080.317
Slapped him/her or pulled his/her hair.678020.050.286
Source: Own elaboration.
Table 3. Situations of violence suffered by the student based on the third questionnaire.
Table 3. Situations of violence suffered by the student based on the third questionnaire.
My Partner…NMinimumMaximumMeanStandard Deviation
Has been jealous of other boys/girlfriends.678041.011.139
Have been jealous and suspicious of my boyfriend/girlfriend’s friends.678040.921.163
Blame my boyfriend/girlfriend for provoking my violent behavior.678040.360.822
Check what my boyfriend/girlfriend is doing and demand to know where he/she has been.678040.310.807
Source: Own elaboration.
Table 4. Situations of violence by the person according to the third questionnaire.
Table 4. Situations of violence by the person according to the third questionnaire.
I…NMinimumMaximumMeanStandard Deviation
Have been jealous of other boys/girls.678041.021.123
Has been jealous and suspicious of my friends.678040.801.108
Blames me for provoking his/her violent behavior.678040.310.708
Checks up on me and demands to know where I’ve been.678040.270.626
Source: Own elaboration.
Table 5. Situations indicating intimate partner violence based on the fourth questionnaire.
Table 5. Situations indicating intimate partner violence based on the fourth questionnaire.
NMinimumMaximumMeanStandard Deviation
Has your partner hit you with his or her hands, pulled things when angry or arguing?678032.820.650
After a violent episode, does your partner show love and care, give you gifts and promise never to hit you again, and tell you that ‘everything will change’?678032.730.750
Do you feel that your partner is in permanent tension and that, no matter what you do, he/she gets irritated or blames you for his/her changes?678032.670.731
Have you lost contact with friends, family, colleagues at school or work to avoid upsetting your partner?678032.630.790
Do you feel that your partner is constantly controlling you ‘for love’?678032.630.823
Source: Own elaboration.
Table 6. Can these behaviors be considered mistreatment?
Table 6. Can these behaviors be considered mistreatment?
NMinimumMaximumMeanStandard Deviation
Hitting678143.561.054
Forcing your partner to do things he/she doesn’t want to do with threats.678143.531.051
Insisting on sex when he/she does not want to have sex.678143.491.038
Spreading messages, insults or images of him/her without his/her permission.678143.481.072
Sending messages to your partner on the internet or mobile phone, frightening, offending, or threatening.678143.471.038
Controlling everything your partner does.678143.451.066
Telling your partner that if he or she leaves me I will hurt him or her.678143.421.061
Telling your partner who he/she can and cannot talk to, or where he/she can and cannot go.678143.411.051
Trying not to let your partner see their friends.678143.411.072
Breaking something from your partner.678143.311.056
Make your partner feel afraid.678143.301.045
Recording your partner on a mobile phone or video or taking photos of him/her without him/her knowing about it.678143.301.056
Insulting your partner.678143.270.998
Telling your partner he or she is worthless.678143.231.056
Source: Own elaboration.
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García-Rojas, A.D.; Gómez, A.H.; Montero-Fernández, D.; Rodríguez-Vargas, S. Perception of University Students Regarding Gender-Based Violence: Identification, Analysis and Detection. Sexes 2024, 5, 758-768. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes5040048

AMA Style

García-Rojas AD, Gómez AH, Montero-Fernández D, Rodríguez-Vargas S. Perception of University Students Regarding Gender-Based Violence: Identification, Analysis and Detection. Sexes. 2024; 5(4):758-768. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes5040048

Chicago/Turabian Style

García-Rojas, Antonio Daniel, Angel Hernando Gómez, Delia Montero-Fernández, and Susana Rodríguez-Vargas. 2024. "Perception of University Students Regarding Gender-Based Violence: Identification, Analysis and Detection" Sexes 5, no. 4: 758-768. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes5040048

APA Style

García-Rojas, A. D., Gómez, A. H., Montero-Fernández, D., & Rodríguez-Vargas, S. (2024). Perception of University Students Regarding Gender-Based Violence: Identification, Analysis and Detection. Sexes, 5(4), 758-768. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes5040048

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