Adaptation of the Information, Motivation, and Behavioral Skills Framework for Understanding COVID-19 Prevention Behaviors among Youth and Young Adults by Sexual Identity, Gender Identity and Race/Ethnicity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
Analytic Sample
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Measurement Development Process
2.2.2. Information
2.2.3. Motivation
COVID-19 Beliefs/Attitudes
COVID-19 Prevention Stigma
COVID-19 Norms
2.2.4. Behavior
COVID-19 Self-efficacy
COVID-19 Prevention Intentions
2.2.5. Demographics
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographics
3.2. Information, Motivation, and Behavioral Skills
3.2.1. Information
3.2.2. Motivation
Beliefs
Prevention Stigma
Norms
3.2.3. Behavior
COVID-19 Self-efficacy
COVID-19 Prevention Intention
3.3. Bivariate Associations
3.3.1. Information
3.3.2. Motivation
Protection Beliefs
Prevention Efficacy Beliefs
COVID-19 Prevention Stigma
Motivation Norms
3.3.3. Behavior
Protect Others
COVID-19 Resources
Follow Prevention Instructions
Intentions to Social Distance
Testing Intentions
4. Discussion
4.1. IMB Factors
4.2. Differences by Sexual Identity
4.3. Differences by Gender Identity and Modality
4.4. Differences by Race/Ethnicity
4.5. Differences by Age
4.6. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Information: COVID-19 Knowledge | ||
Items | ||
Please indicate, to the best of your knowledge, whether the following statements are true or false. | ||
B. | Antibiotics are effective at preventing COVID-19 infection. | |
C. | Only people over age 65 who get COVID-19 will require hospitalization. | |
E. | In most places, people under 18 will need parental consent to get a COVID-19 test. | |
G. | Once infected with the coronavirus, it can take 2 to 14 days to show symptoms. | |
J. | A loss of smell or taste is a symptom of COVID-19. | |
D. | There is no reason to get tested for COVID-19 if you do not have symptoms. | |
A. | Healthy people should practice social distancing. | Eliminated |
H. | I won’t need to wear a mask after I get vaccinated for COVID-19. | Eliminated |
F. | It is okay to stop social distancing, as long as you are wearing a mask and washing your hands frequently. | Eliminated |
Appendix B
Motivation: COVID-19 Beliefs | |||
Items | Factor Loadings | ||
Below are a series of statements about COVID-19. Please indicate whether such statement is true for you by selecting yes, no, or unsure. | Factor 1 (Protection) | Factor 2 (Prevention Efficacy Beliefs) | |
A. | I believe I can protect myself from COVID-19. | 0.40 | |
B. | I believe I can protect others from COVID-19. | 0.99 | |
C. | I believe that COVID-19 is a serious disease. | 0.31 | |
E. | I believe that getting testing for COVID-19 if I am experiencing symptoms is important to stopping the spread of the virus. | 0.37 | |
G. | I believe that washing my hands regularly can prevent me and others around me from getting COVID-19. | 0.29 | |
H. | I believe that continuing to social distance is needed to prevent those around me from getting COVID-19. | 0.52 | |
J. | I believe it is everyone’s job in the community to work together to stop COVID-19. | 0.52 | |
D. | I believe that I am at risk of being infected with COVID-19. | Eliminated | |
F. | I believe that wearing a mask will help stop the spread of the virus in my community. | Eliminated | |
I. | I believe it is unlikely that I would get COVID-19 from my close friends or family. | Eliminated |
Appendix C
Motivation: COVID-19 Stigma | ||
Items | Factor Loadings | |
Using the scale provided, please rate how much you agree or disagree with the following statements by selecting strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree or strongly agree: | Stigma Factor (COVID-19 Stigma) | |
A. | It would be embarrassing to get a COVID-19 test. | 0.67 |
B. | I wouldn’t want my friends knowing that I had COVID-19. | 0.60 |
C. | Wearing a face mask in public is embarrassing. | 0.53 |
D. | If I found out a friend who I had recently hung out with tested positive for COVID-19, I would be annoyed with them. | 0.60 |
E. | If I got a COVID-19 test, I wouldn’t tell others around me, even if it came back negative. | Eliminated |
Appendix D
Motivation: COVID-19 Norms | ||
Items | Factor Loadings | |
Using the scale provided, please rate how much you agree or disagree with the following statements by selecting strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree or strongly agree: | Norms Factor (Motivation Norms) | |
A. | Most of my friends and family have abided by social distancing rules when possible. | 0.60 |
D. | A lot of people I know have gotten tested for COVID-19. | 0.60 |
B. | In my community, it is normal to wear a mask. | Eliminated |
C. | I think my parents would be supportive if I wanted to get tested for COVID-19. | Eliminated |
Appendix E
Behavior: COVID-19 Self-Efficacy | ||||
Items | Factor Loadings | |||
How easy or difficult would the following be to do? Please select one option from the following options: very hard to do, somewhat hard, somewhat easy to do, and very easy to do. | Factor 1 (Protect Others) | Factor 2 (COVID-19 Resources) | Factor 3 (Follow Prevention Instruction) | |
C. | Wear a mask when I am hanging out with my friends. | 0.46 | ||
D. | Wash my hands with soap and warm water for at least 20 s after going out or interacting with people. | 0.76 | ||
F. | Call my state’s helpline or another source if I am having trouble finding COVID-19 testing. | 0.45 | ||
G. | Go to a doctor if I think I have COVID-19. | 0.77 | ||
I. | Seek out help if I thought my mental health was being impacted by the pandemic. | 0.53 | ||
J. | Encourage others around me to wear masks. | 0.57 | ||
K. | Say no to a friend if they ask me to hang out because I am social distancing. | 0.58 | ||
L. | Encourage friends to social distance. | 0.91 | ||
A. | Quarantine for 2 weeks if I think I may have been exposed to COVID-19. | Eliminated | ||
B. | Wear a mask when I am at the store or running errands. | Eliminated | ||
E. | Figure out where around me COVID-19 testing is available. | Eliminated | ||
H. | Tell my family or people I live with that I wanted to get tested for COVID-19. | Eliminated |
Appendix F
Behavior: COVID-19 Prevention Intention | |||
Items | Factor Loadings | ||
How easy or difficult would the following be to do? Please select one option from the following options: definitely will not do, probably will not do, probably will do, and definitely will do. | Factor 1 (Intentions to Social Distance) | Factor 2 (Testing Intentions) | |
A. | Get a COVID-19 test if/when I have symptoms or am exposed | 0.67 | |
B. | Encourage others around me to get COVID-19 tests if they are having symptoms. | 0.87 | |
D. | Social distance from people not in my household. | 0.54 | |
E. | Avoid going out to an indoor restaurant, bar, or club. | 0.80 | |
F. | Avoid visiting with older (60+ years) family members. | 0.60 | |
H. | Avoid going to a family gathering like a birthday party or wedding or funeral. | 0.76 | |
C. | Wear a mask when I am in public. | Eliminated | |
G. | Wash my hands with soap and warm water for at least 20 s after going out or interacting with people. | Eliminated |
Appendix G
Measures | Descriptions |
---|---|
Age | Age was assessed by asking participants, “How old are you right now?” Participants were placed into one of three age group categories: (1) 14–17 years old, (2) 18–21 years old, and (3) 22–24 years old. |
Race/Ethnicity | Two questions were used to assess race/ethnicity. Participants’ race was collected via the following question: “How do you describe your race? [Choose all that apply]”. Response options included (1) American Indian or Alaska Native, (2) Black or African American, (3) Asian, (4) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, (5) White, (6) Not listed, and (7) Prefer not to answer. Latinx ethnicity was assessed with the question “Are you of Hispanic, Latinx, or Spanish origin?” Response options included (1) Yes, (2) No, and (3) Prefer not to answer. Individuals who responded “Not listed” to the Race question and provided write-in responses were recoded based on their responses. If participants wrote “Hispanic” or similar phrases, we assigned their response to the Latinx ethnicity question as “Yes”. If participants wrote a race that was listed in the race question, we assigned their race based on their write-in responses. Others remained as “Not listed”. Next, we combined the race and Latinx ethnicity responses. Participants who selected more than one option were categorized as 8) Multiracial. Participants who responded “Yes” to the Latinx ethnicity question were categorized as “Hispanic” regardless of how many options they selected for the race question. Additionally, we reviewed responses for individuals who responded “Prefer not to answer” to both questions and assigned their race/ethnicity based on their responses for race/ethnicity in the screener. Finally, race/ethnicity was collapsed into seven analytic groups: (1) American Indian/Alaska Native, (2) Asian, (3) Black or African American, (4) Hispanic, (5) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, (6) Multiracial, and (7) Not listed. |
Sexual Orientation | Sexual orientation was assessed by asking participants, “Which of the following best describes your sexual orientation at this time? [Choose all that apply]”. Response options included (1) Asexual or asexual spectrum, (2) Bisexual or pansexual, (3) Gay or lesbian, (4) Straight (heterosexual), (5) Queer, (6) Questioning my sexual orientation, (7) Not listed, and (8) Prefer not to respond. Individuals who responded “Not listed” were asked to provide a write-in response. For individuals who selected only one option for sexual orientation, we assigned their sexual orientation based on this selection. For individuals who selected more than one option, we then asked “If you could only pick one term to describe your sexual orientation, which would you pick?” and assigned their sexual orientation based on their specified selection among the first seven options listed above. Individuals who selected more than one option were also able to provide a write-in response. Finally, we assigned sexual orientation for participants who provided write-in responses (n = 10). For example, participants who wrote “Aromantic” were categorized as “Asexual or asexual spectrum” (n = 2) and participants who wrote “Omnisexual” were categorized as “Bisexual or pansexual” (n = 4). |
Gender Identity | Gender identity was assessed by asking, “Which of the following terms best describes your gender at this time? [Choose all that apply]”. Response options included (1) Woman/Girl, (2) Man/Boy, 3) Two-spirit, (4) Non-binary, (5) Agender, (6) Genderqueer, (7) Questioning my gender identity, (8) Not listed, and (9) Prefer not to respond. Individuals who responded “Not listed” were asked to provide a write-in response, and were assigned gender identity based on their response (n = 18). For example, participants who wrote, “Gender Fluid” were categorized as “Non-binary”. |
Gender Modality | First, participants were asked “Some people use the term transgender to describe themselves when their gender does not align with the sex they were assigned at birth. Do you identify as transgender?” Response options included (1) Yes, (2) No, (3) Prefer not to respond, (4) I’m not sure if I identify as transgender, and (5) I’m not sure what this question is asking. Using responses to this question and the Gender Identity question, we constructed Gender Modality including (1) Cisgender, (2) Trans and gender diverse, and (3) Not sure. Specifically, individuals who reported their Gender Identity as “man/boy” and “women/girl” and did not report a transgender gender modality were categorized as cisgender. |
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Demographics | N (%) |
---|---|
Age, Years | |
14–17 | 172 (16.76) |
18–21 | 495 (48.25) |
22–24 | 359 (34.99) |
Race/Ethnicity | |
White | 231 (22.51) |
American Indian or Alaska Native | 97 (9.45) |
Asian | 75 (7.31) |
Black | 181 (17.64) |
Latinx | 342 (33.33) |
Multiracial | 100 (9.75) |
Sexual Identity | |
Straight | 225 (21.93) |
Asexual/Ace Spectrum | 53 (5.17) |
Bisexual/Pansexual | 352 (34.31) |
Gay/Lesbian | 227 (22.12) |
Queer | 147 (14.33) |
Questioning | 22 (2.14) |
Gender | |
Woman/Girl | 513 (50.00) |
Agender | 10 (0.97) |
Gender Queer | 29 (2.83) |
Man/Boy | 276 (26.90) |
Non-binary | 168 (16.37) |
Questioning | 30 (2.92) |
Gender Modality | |
Cisgender | 659 (64.23) |
Trans and Gender Diverse | 331 (32.26) |
Not sure | 36 (3.51) |
Total | 1026 |
Knowledge of COVID-19 Prevention | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antibiotics Are Effective at Preventing COVID-19 Infection. (FALSE) | Only People over Age 65 Who Get COVID-19 Will Require Hospitalization. (FALSE) | In Most Places, People under 18 Will Need Parental Consent to Obtain a COVID-19 Test. (TRUE) | Once Infected with COVID-19, It Can Take 2 to 14 Days to Show Symptoms. (TRUE) | A Loss of Smell or Taste Is a Symptom of COVID-19. (TRUE) | There Is No Reason to Get Tested for COVID-19 If You do Not Have Symptoms. (FALSE) | |||||||
Demographics | N (%) | p-Value | N (%) | p-Value | N (%) | p-Value | N (%) | p-Value | N (%) | p-Value | N (%) | p-Value |
Age, Years | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.51 | 0.25 | 0.98 | 0.84 | ||||||
14–17 | 132 (76.74) | 158 (91.86) | 117 (68.02) | 168 (97.67) | 170 (98.84) | 161 (93.60) | ||||||
18–21 | 388 (78.38) | 451 (91.11) | 314 (63.43) | 486 (98.18) | 490 (98.99) | 469 (94.75) | ||||||
22–24 | 298 (83.01) | 340 (94.71) | 227 (63.23) | 346 (96.38) | 355 (98.89) | 340 (94.71) | ||||||
Race/Ethnicity | <0.01 | <0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | p < 0.01 | p < 0.001 | ||||||
White | 199 (86.15) | 218 (94.37) | 131 (56.71) | 229 (99.13) | 231 (100.00) | 227 (98.27) | ||||||
American Indian or Alaska Native | 66 (68.04) | 83 (85.57) | 72 (74.23) | 92 (94.85) | 97 (100.00) | 82 (84.54) | ||||||
Asian | 55 (73.33) | 70 (93.33) | 46 (61.33) | 75 (100.00) | 75 (100.00) | 74 (98.67) | ||||||
Black | 137 (75.69) | 160 (88.40) | 114 (62.98) | 171 (94.48) | 174 (96.13) | 169 (93.37) | ||||||
Latinx | 275 (80.41) | 321 (93.86) | 233 (68.13) | 334 (97.66) | 339 (99.12) | 322 (94.15) | ||||||
Multiracial | 86 (86.00) | 97 (97.00) | 62 (62.00) | 99 (99.00) | 99 (99.00) | 96 (96.00) | ||||||
Sexual Identity | <0.01 | 0.11 | 0.48 | 0.58 | 0.41 | 0.25 | ||||||
Straight | 156 (69.33) | 208 (92.44) | 151 (67.11) | 220 (97.78) | 221 (98.22) | 210 (93.33) | ||||||
Asexual/Ace Spectrum | 45 (84.91) | 47 (88.68) | 30 (56.60) | 51 (96.23) | 52 (98.11) | 50 (94.34) | ||||||
Bisexual/Pansexual | 289 (82.10) | 327 (92.90) | 230 (65.34) | 346 (98.30) | 350 (99.43) | 333 (94.60) | ||||||
Gay/Lesbian | 184 (81.06) | 207 (91.19) | 147 (64.76) | 218 (96.04) | 223 (98.24) | 212 (93.39) | ||||||
Queer | 127 (86.39) | 142 (96.60) | 86 (58.50) | 144 (97.96) | 147 (100.00) | 145 (98.64) | ||||||
Questioning | 17 (77.27) | 18 (81.82) | 14 (63.64) | 21 (95.45) | 22 (100.00) | 20 (90.91) | ||||||
Gender | 0.53 | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.52 | 0.08 | ||||||
Woman/Girl | 405 (78.95) | 476 (92.79) | 347 (67.64) | 500 (97.47) | 509 (99.22) | 482 (93.96) | ||||||
Agender | 10 (100.00) | 10 (100.00) | 4 (40.00) | 10 (100.00) | 10 (100.00) | 10 (100.00) | ||||||
Gender Queer | 24 (82.76) | 28 (96.55) | 18 (62.07) | 26 (89.66) | 28 (96.55) | 25 (86.21) | ||||||
Man/Boy | 217 (78.62) | 247 (89.49) | 172 (62.32) | 269 (97.46) | 271 (98.19) | 259 (93.84) | ||||||
Non-binary | 136 (80.95) | 158 (94.05) | 97 (57.74) | 165 (98.21) | 167 (99.40) | 165 (98.21) | ||||||
Questioning | 26 (86.67) | 30 (100.00) | 20 (66.67) | 30 (100.00) | 30 (100.00) | 29 (96.67) | ||||||
Gender Modality | 0.31 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.61 | 0.74 | 0.49 | ||||||
Cisgender | 516 (78.30) | 603 (91.50) | 436 (66.16) | 642 (97.42) | 651 (98.79) | 619 (93.93) | ||||||
Trans and Gender Diverse | 272 (82.18) | 310 (93.66) | 197 (59.52) | 322 (97.28) | 328 (99.09) | 317 (95.77) | ||||||
Not Sure | 30 (83.33) | 36 (100.00) | 25 (69.44) | 36 (100.00) | 36 (100.00) | 34 (94.44) | ||||||
Frequency of Responses (N = 1026) | Correct | Incorrect | Correct | Incorrect | Correct | Incorrect | Correct | Incorrect | Correct | Incorrect | Correct | Incorrect |
818 (0.80) | 208 (0.20) | 949 (0.92) | 77 (0.08) | 658 (0.64) | 368 (0.36) | 1000 (0.97) | 26 (0.03) | 1015 (0.99) | 11 (0.01) | 970 (0.95) | 56 (0.05) |
Belief Factor 1 (Protection) | Belief Factor 2 (Prevention Efficacy Beliefs) | Stigma Factor (COVID-19 Stigma) | Norms Factor (Motivation Norms) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demographics | Coefficient | Std. Error | t | p | Coefficient | Std. Error | t | p | Coefficient | Std. Error | t | p | Coefficient | Std. Error | t | p |
Age, Years | ||||||||||||||||
14–17 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||||||||
18–21 | 0.10 | 0.07 | 1.46 | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.92 | 0.36 | −0.07 | 0.07 | −1.01 | 0.31 | 0.38 | 0.06 | 6.03 | <0.01 |
22–24 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.69 | 0.49 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.37 | 0.71 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.95 | 0.36 | 0.07 | 5.49 | <0.01 |
Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||||||||||
White | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||||||||
American Indian or Alaska Native | −0.01 | 0.09 | −0.08 | 0.93 | −0.04 | 0.09 | −0.42 | 0.68 | 0.25 | 0.10 | 2.47 | 0.01 | −0.14 | 0.09 | −1.57 | 0.12 |
Asian | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.96 | −0.10 | 0.10 | −0.98 | 0.33 | −0.04 | 0.11 | −0.32 | 0.75 | −0.13 | 0.10 | −1.40 | 0.16 |
Black | −0.10 | 0.08 | −1.37 | 0.17 | −0.09 | 0.07 | −1.30 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 2.16 | 0.03 | −0.16 | 0.07 | −2.31 | 0.02 |
Latinx | 0.07 | 0.06 | 1.01 | 0.31 | −0.13 | 0.06 | −2.12 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 1.07 | 0.28 | −0.12 | 0.06 | −2.02 | 0.04 |
Multiracial | −0.08 | 0.09 | −0.85 | 0.40 | −0.24 | 0.09 | −2.78 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.78 | 0.43 | −0.13 | 0.09 | −1.50 | 0.13 |
Sexual Identity | ||||||||||||||||
Straight | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||||||||
Asexual/Ace Spectrum | 0.25 | 0.12 | 2.19 | 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.11 | 1.35 | 0.18 | −0.23 | 0.13 | −1.84 | 0.07 | −0.06 | 0.11 | −0.57 | 0.57 |
Bisexual/Pansexual | 0.11 | 0.06 | 1.68 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 1.28 | 0.20 | −0.18 | 0.07 | −2.52 | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.06 | −0.12 | 0.90 |
Gay/Lesbian | −0.03 | 0.07 | −0.37 | 0.71 | 0.13 | 0.07 | 1.86 | 0.06 | −0.18 | 0.08 | −2.32 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.72 | 0.47 |
Queer | 0.14 | 0.08 | 1.74 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 1.09 | 0.28 | −0.26 | 0.09 | −3.00 | <0.01 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.86 | 0.39 |
Questioning | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.72 | 0.47 | 0.36 | 0.16 | 2.20 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.18 | 0.68 | 0.50 | −0.52 | 0.16 | −3.26 | <0.01 |
Gender | ||||||||||||||||
Woman/Girl | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||||||||
Agender | −0.08 | 0.24 | −0.35 | 0.73 | 0.12 | 0.23 | 0.52 | 0.61 | −0.44 | 0.26 | −1.68 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.23 | 0.09 | 0.93 |
Gender Queer | 0.08 | 0.14 | 0.53 | 0.59 | 0.34 | 0.14 | 2.43 | 0.02 | −0.03 | 0.16 | −0.20 | 0.84 | 0.00 | 0.14 | −0.01 | 0.99 |
Man/Boy | −0.07 | 0.06 | −1.26 | .21 | −0.10 | 0.05 | −1.82 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.73 | 0.46 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.98 |
Non-binary | 0.08 | 0.07 | 1.16 | .25 | −0.06 | 0.07 | −0.94 | 0.35 | −0.20 | 0.07 | −2.67 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.77 | 0.44 |
Questioning | 0.41 | 0.14 | 2.90 | <0.01 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.70 | 0.48 | −0.15 | 0.16 | −0.99 | 0.32 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.54 | 0.59 |
Gender Modality | ||||||||||||||||
Cisgender | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||||||||
Trans and Gender Diverse | 0.10 | 0.05 | 1.93 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.05 | −0.06 | 0.96 | −0.21 | 0.06 | −3.74 | <0.01 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 1.33 | 0.18 |
Not Sure | 0.42 | 0.13 | 3.27 | <0.01 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.58 | 0.56 | −0.23 | 0.14 | −1.59 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.39 | 0.70 |
Self-Efficacy Factor 1 (Protect Others) | Self-Efficacy Factor 2 (COVID-19 Resources) | Self-Efficacy Factor 3 (Follow Prevention Instruction) | Prevention Intention Factor 1 (Intentions to Social Distance) | Prevention Intention Factor 2 (Testing Intentions) | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demographics | Coefficient | Std. Error | t-Value | p-Value | Coefficient | Std. Error | t-Value | p-Value | Coefficient | Std. Error | t-Value | p-Value | Coefficient | Std. Error | t-Value | p-Value | Coefficient | Std. Error | t-Value | p-Value |
Age, Years | ||||||||||||||||||||
14–17 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||||||||
18–21 | −0.04 | 0.08 | −0.46 | 0.64 | −0.04 | 0.07 | −0.48 | 0.63 | 0.13 | 0.07 | 1.90 | 0.06 | −0.01 | 0.08 | −0.13 | 0.89 | 0.25 | 0.08 | 3.21 | <0.01 |
22–24 | −0.11 | 0.08 | −1.31 | 0.19 | −0.04 | 0.08 | −0.57 | 0.57 | 0.16 | 0.07 | 2.22 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.66 | 0.51 | 0.26 | 0.08 | 3.16 | <0.01 |
Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||||||||||||||
White | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||||||||
American Indian or Alaska Native | −0.02 | 0.11 | −0.18 | 0.86 | 0.35 | 0.10 | 3.47 | <0.01 | −0.20 | 0.09 | −2.16 | 0.03 | −0.63 | 0.10 | −6.05 | <0.01 | −0.34 | 0.11 | −3.22 | <0.01 |
Asian | 0.14 | 0.12 | 1.17 | 0.24 | 0.18 | 0.11 | 1.62 | 0.10 | −0.20 | 0.10 | −1.94 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.12 | 1.34 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.21 | 0.83 |
Black | 0.17 | 0.09 | 1.85 | 0.06 | 0.30 | 0.08 | 3.64 | <0.01 | −0.25 | 0.08 | −3.36 | <0.01 | −0.27 | 0.09 | −3.12 | <0.01 | −0.31 | 0.09 | −3.59 | <0.01 |
Hispanic | −0.01 | 0.08 | −0.12 | 0.90 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.95 | 0.34 | −0.08 | 0.07 | −1.30 | 0.19 | −0.40 | 0.07 | −5.47 | <0.01 | −0.09 | 0.07 | −1.21 | 0.23 |
Multiracial | −0.19 | 0.11 | −1.78 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.87 | 0.38 | −0.28 | 0.09 | −3.11 | <0.01 | −0.55 | 0.10 | −5.28 | <0.01 | −0.29 | 0.10 | −2.81 | 0.01 |
Sexual Identity | ||||||||||||||||||||
Straight | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||||||||
Asexual/Ace Spectrum | −0.02 | 0.14 | −0.12 | 0.91 | −0.37 | 0.13 | −2.92 | <0.01 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 1.09 | 0.28 | 0.50 | 0.13 | 3.75 | <0.01 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.63 | 0.53 |
Bi/Pan | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.94 | 0.35 | −0.16 | 0.07 | −2.24 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 1.42 | 0.16 | 0.26 | 0.08 | 3.40 | <0.01 | 0.24 | 0.08 | 3.16 | <0.01 |
Gay/Les | 0.24 | 0.09 | 2.77 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.19 | 0.85 | 0.04 | 0.07 | .50 | 0.62 | 0.31 | 0.08 | 3.71 | <0.01 | 0.17 | 0.08 | 2.11 | 0.03 |
Queer | 0.20 | 0.10 | 2.10 | 0.04 | −0.04 | 0.09 | −0.45 | 0.65 | 0.24 | 0.08 | 2.92 | <0.01 | 0.54 | 0.09 | 5.82 | <0.01 | 0.34 | 0.09 | 3.64 | <0.01 |
Questioning | 0.09 | 0.20 | 0.43 | 0.67 | −0.22 | 0.18 | −1.22 | 0.22 | −0.13 | 0.17 | −0.74 | 0.46 | 0.01 | 0.20 | 0.07 | 0.95 | −0.05 | 0.20 | −0.24 | 0.81 |
Gender | ||||||||||||||||||||
Woman/Girl | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||||||||
Agender | 0.30 | 0.29 | 1.03 | 0.30 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.93 | 0.35 | 0.19 | 0.24 | .78 | 0.43 | 0.16 | 0.28 | 0.57 | 0.57 | −0.08 | 0.28 | −0.29 | 0.77 |
Gender Queer | 0.02 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.90 | −0.06 | 0.16 | −0.36 | 0.72 | −0.18 | 0.15 | −1.26 | 0.21 | 0.25 | 0.17 | 1.47 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.98 | 0.33 |
Man/Boy | −0.03 | 0.07 | −0.39 | 0.70 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 1.20 | 0.23 | −0.15 | 0.06 | −2.63 | 0.01 | −0.04 | 0.07 | −0.67 | 0.50 | −0.10 | 0.07 | −1.51 | 0.13 |
Non-binary | 0.13 | 0.08 | 1.63 | 0.10 | −0.10 | 0.07 | −1.29 | 0.20 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 1.00 | 0.32 | 0.36 | 0.08 | 4.52 | <0.01 | 0.16 | 0.08 | 1.98 | 0.05 |
Questioning | −0.05 | 0.17 | −0.32 | 0.75 | −0.16 | 0.16 | −1.00 | 0.32 | 0.07 | 0.14 | .48 | 0.63 | 0.21 | 0.17 | 1.26 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.17 | 1.23 | 0.22 |
Gender Modality | ||||||||||||||||||||
Cisgender | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||||||||
Trans and Gender Diverse | 0.10 | 0.06 | 1.55 | 0.12 | −0.09 | 0.06 | −1.60 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 1.82 | 0.07 | 0.35 | 0.06 | 5.93 | <0.01 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 2.37 | 0.02 |
Not Sure | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.23 | 0.82 | −0.23 | 0.14 | −1.60 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 1.26 | 0.21 | 0.27 | 0.15 | 1.82 | <0.01 | 0.21 | 0.15 | 1.40 | 0.16 |
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Share and Cite
Phillips, G., II; Xu, J.; Curtis, M.G.; Ruprecht, M.M.; Davoudpour, S.; Choi, J.; Quiballo, K.; Huang, S.; Macapagal, K. Adaptation of the Information, Motivation, and Behavioral Skills Framework for Understanding COVID-19 Prevention Behaviors among Youth and Young Adults by Sexual Identity, Gender Identity and Race/Ethnicity. Sexes 2023, 4, 656-676. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes4040042
Phillips G II, Xu J, Curtis MG, Ruprecht MM, Davoudpour S, Choi J, Quiballo K, Huang S, Macapagal K. Adaptation of the Information, Motivation, and Behavioral Skills Framework for Understanding COVID-19 Prevention Behaviors among Youth and Young Adults by Sexual Identity, Gender Identity and Race/Ethnicity. Sexes. 2023; 4(4):656-676. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes4040042
Chicago/Turabian StylePhillips, Gregory, II, Jiayi Xu, Michael G. Curtis, Megan M. Ruprecht, Shahin Davoudpour, Joseph Choi, Kay Quiballo, Sophia Huang, and Kathryn Macapagal. 2023. "Adaptation of the Information, Motivation, and Behavioral Skills Framework for Understanding COVID-19 Prevention Behaviors among Youth and Young Adults by Sexual Identity, Gender Identity and Race/Ethnicity" Sexes 4, no. 4: 656-676. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes4040042