Consumers’ Attitudes Towards Prawn Consumption in Bangladesh: An Investigation on Perceived Value and Willingness-to-Pay

Abstract

This study assessed consumer preferences and consumption patterns for prawns in Bangladesh, underscoring the economic and nutritional significance of prawns in the local diet. A total of 120 respondents were interviewed following a random sampling technique from four districts. The data analysis employed descriptive statistics alongside mathematical and statistical methods. The findings indicate a strong preference for fresh and large-sized prawns among the consumers. Income level substantially influenced the prawn purchases, with the high-income consumers more likely to buy premium prawn products, while the low-income consumers showed sensitivity to price changes. The primary concerns that significantly influenced the consumers’ purchasing decisions were found to be size, freshness, taste, price, market availability, and income. Additionally, the consumers’ perceived value and willingness-to-pay for prawns were significantly driven by size, freshness, environmental sustainability, and income levels. Policy recommendations include promoting sustainable prawn farming and improving accessibility for low-income consumers to enhance both nutritional intake and economic resilience. This research offers valuable insights for stakeholders in the prawn industry, facilitating the development of targeted marketing strategies and informed policymaking for sustainable industry growth.

1. Introduction

With its extensive inland waters and river systems, Bangladesh holds large potential for both capture fisheries and aquaculture. Its geographical location favors a rich diversity of aquatic species, supporting a robust fisheries sector [1]. Aquaculture positions Bangladesh as one of Asia’s leading seafood producers, as a basis of the nation’s economy and a major component of its dietary intake. Ranking third in aquatic biodiversity in Asia, after China and India, Bangladesh is home to approximately 800 species from its fresh, brackish, and marine waters [2].

In the agricultural sector in 2021–22, the fisheries sub-sector contributed 2.43% to the national and 22.14% to the agricultural gross domestic product [3]. Within this vibrant industry, prawns (locally known as ‘Golda’) and shrimp stand out as both a cultural staple and an economic asset [4]. In the 2021–22 period, total prawn and shrimp production, including both aquaculture and capture, reached approximately 261 thousand metric tons [5]. In recent years, Bangladesh has exported around 30 thousand metric tons of prawns annually, with the European Union, the United States, and Japan being the largest markets [6]. These exports significantly contribute to the country’s foreign exchange earnings, emphasizing the economic importance of prawns beyond domestic consumption. The annual domestic demand for prawns and shrimp in Bangladesh is approximately 216 thousand metric tons, accounting for about 83% of the market, reflecting their popularity and integral role in the local cuisine and the economy [5,7]. Apart from the volumes designated for export and local demand, a good portion feeds into informal markets, particularly in rural areas where formal tracking is less prevalent. This includes consumption in local communities, especially in coastal regions where seafood forms a staple part of the diet. Additionally, some of the production is used in by-products or secondary processing industries that might not be accounted for in direct consumption statistics, such as fish meal production, which is a critical input for aquaculture feeds. Moreover, there are losses incurred during handling, processing, and distribution, which are typical in seafood supply chains due to the perishable nature of the product.

The global prawn and shrimp market is characterized by diverse consumption trends influenced by regional dietary habits, economic status, and cultural preferences. In Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific, prawns are deeply integrated into local and festive cuisines [8]. Countries like Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia, benefiting from favorable climates and advanced aquaculture technologies, not only meet substantial domestic demand but also cater extensively to international markets, including the United States and Europe [9]. In contrast, in the Western markets, prawn consumption is often driven by health trends and the growing popularity of global cuisines, which elevates demand for both fresh and processed prawn products [10]. The European Union shows a strong preference for sustainably sourced seafood, which has spurred innovations in prawn farming and processing techniques [11]. In addition, consumer income levels also affect prawn market dynamics globally; higher-income regions exhibit a demand for value-added prawn products, while in lower-income regions, consumers may limit their consumption to locally available and lower-cost options [12]. This global variance in prawn consumption patterns underscores the importance of consumer-oriented strategies that consider specific regional preferences and economic conditions.

Prawns, particularly the freshwater variety, are well known for their taste and size. Prawns are valued not only for their culinary versatility and nutritional benefits but also for their economic impact, as prawn farming drives rural development, generates employment, and contributes to export revenues [13]. Their popularity is further enhanced by their delicate flavor and texture, which make them a preferred choice among seafoods across both rural and urban settings. Nutritionally, prawns stand out as a great source of high-quality protein, delivering approximately 25 g per 100 g of flesh [14]. This high protein content, combined with their low-calorie profile, positions them as an ideal component of a balanced diet, particularly valuable for muscle building and repair. Prawns are not only rich in protein, but also in essential omega-3 fatty acids, including EPA and DHA, which play a critical role in heart health by reducing inflammation and improving cardiovascular functions [15]. These fatty acids are also essential for brain development and maintaining cognitive functions [16], making prawns beneficial for mental health. Moreover, prawns are a significant source of vitamin B12, an essential nutrient crucial for brain health and the maintenance of an effective nervous system. This vitamin is vital for producing red blood cells and synthesizing DNA, and it helps in managing homocysteine levels, thereby reducing cardiovascular risk [17]. Beyond these, prawns provide a rich array of other nutrients, including polyunsaturated fatty acids, which further assist in lowering cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of heart disease, and aiding in the management of blood lipids [18]. Prawns are also abundant in several minerals such as zinc, selenium, and iodine. Zinc is pivotal for immune function and skin health, selenium acts as a powerful antioxidant protecting against cellular damage, and iodine is critical for thyroid function, which regulates metabolism [19]. Additionally, they are a good source of lipophilic vitamins such as vitamin E and vitamin A, which are vital for maintaining healthy skin and vision, and for providing an immune boost [18]. Essential amino acids found in prawns, such as lysine and methionine, are crucial for various metabolic functions and cannot be synthesized by the body and hence must be obtained from the diet [20].

Despite these significant nutritional benefits, the consumption patterns of prawns in Bangladesh are influenced by a variety of socioeconomic and cultural factors that vary across different regions and demographic groups. While some areas may consume prawns frequently due to their availability and cultural preferences, other regions might have less consumption due to economic constraints or a lack of awareness about the health benefits [21]. Grasping these patterns can provide valuable insights for public health initiatives aimed at promoting healthier dietary choices in the population. Understanding consumer preferences and consumption patterns is vital for enhancing the prawn industry in Bangladesh [22]. By identifying key drivers behind consumer choices, stakeholders can tailor marketing strategies and improve products to better meet consumer demands. This knowledge not only helps in managing supply chains and forecasting demand but also supports policymaking for sustainable industry growth. Ultimately, exploring these dynamics can increase consumption, boost nutritional intake, and ensure the responsible use of prawn resources, benefiting both the economy and the environment [23].

The importance of this modality is well documented across a variety of studies. Hossain et al. (2024) [13] analyzed consumer preferences for prawns and shrimp in Bangladesh, finding that attributes like size, taste, and safety perceptions significantly influence choices. Jhan et al. (2023) [24] explored key factors affecting Taiwanese consumer behavior towards white shrimp, noting a strong correlation between product awareness and purchase intentions. In the United States, Dasgupta et al. (2010) [25] studied consumer responses at a Kentucky farmers’ market, highlighting the impact of local certifications on preference, while Simoes et al. (2015) [26] assessed how sustainability labels on packaging influence consumer acceptance in unspecified markets. Yi (2019) [27] utilized a web-based survey to investigate global consumer decision-making processes for certified aquaculture products. Similarly, Soley et al. (2019) [28] focused on Kentucky and South Carolina, examining preferences for farm-raised shrimp. Mitra et al. (2021) [29] also studied consumer preferences in Bangladesh, discussing the attributes of capture and culture fish. Erickson et al. (2007) [30] evaluated consumer perceptions of frozen shrimp in a general market setting. Finally, Hoque et al. (2022) [31] and Hoque et al. (2021) [32] assessed the demand for traceability and organic shrimp in emerging markets like Bangladesh, emphasizing the importance of the production mode and safety assurances in influencing consumer choices. These studies collectively highlight that region-specific factors, clear communication, and trustworthy certifications are essential in aligning consumer behavior with sustainable and safe seafood practices.

This study aims to address a research gap by providing an in-depth analysis of consumer preferences and consumption patterns related to prawns in Bangladesh, with a particular focus on consumers’ socioeconomic characteristics, prawn attributes, and consumer behavior, areas that have been largely underexplored in previous research. By evaluating prawn attributes, consumption behavior, and consumer perceptions, this study will provide a comprehensive understanding of the determinants behind prawn purchasing decisions. Additionally, it will assess how these factors influence consumers’ willingness-to-pay, adding an economic dimension that has often been overlooked. The goal of this research is to identify the socioeconomic factors that influence prawn consumption, understand consumer preferences and their determinants, and assess the willingness-to-pay for specific prawn attributes. The expected outcome is to generate actionable insights that can inform targeted marketing strategies, support policymakers in fostering sustainable industry growth, and enhance public health initiatives through increased prawn consumption, contributing to both economic development and improved nutritional outcomes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Areas, Sample Size, and Data Collection

This study was conducted across four districts in Bangladesh: Dhaka, Mymensingh, Bogura, and Khulna, each representing distinct economic activities. Dhaka serves as a major urban center [33], Mymensingh and Bogura are known for their traditional agricultural roles [34], and Khulna is a key region in the prawn farming industry [35]. A total of 120 consumers (i.e., 30 consumers from each district) were interviewed following a random sampling technique during May–July 2024. The data collection involved administering a structured questionnaire that had been pre-tested before its final version was used (provided as Supplementary Materials). The questionnaire collected detailed information on the socioeconomic characteristics of the consumers, their patterns of prawn consumption, their income and expenditure, their perceptions of locally found prawn attributes (both fresh and processed), and their opinions about the determinants affecting prawn consumption. Additionally, secondary sources such as reports, publications, and handouts relevant to the study were also reviewed.

2.2. Analytical Techniques

To analyze the data, a combination of descriptive statistics (such as sums, averages, and percentages), along with mathematical and statistical techniques, were employed to meet the study objectives and derive meaningful results.

2.2.1. Estimation of Consumers’ Expenditure

To assess the impact of an increase in income on the expenditure patterns of prawn purchases, a quantitative analysis approach was employed, using the income elasticity of demand [36] for prawns to estimate changes in the consumer expenditure. The income elasticity of demand was used to calculate the percentage change in prawn expenditure given a percentage change in income. The new expenditure on prawns was estimated using the current expenditure and the calculated change as follows ((1) and (2)):

ΔE = E × ΔI

(1)

New expenditure = Current expenditure + (Current expenditure × ΔE)

(2)

where ΔE = Percentage change in expenditure; E = Income elasticity of demand for prawns; and ΔI = Percentage increase in income, set at 10% for this analysis.

2.2.2. Semantic Differential Scale

Consumers’ attitudes towards the various attributes of prawns when making purchasing decisions were quantitatively measured and analyzed using a 5-point semantic differential scale [37]. The semantic differential scale is a type of survey measurement technique that uses a scale to rate the affective meaning of an object. In this study, the respondents were presented with structured questionnaires containing statements about prawn attributes and were asked to rate 10 statements about prawn attributes on a 5-point scale, i.e., ‘strongly disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘neutral’, ‘agree’, and ‘strongly agree’. The points assigned to these responses were 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. They rated their agreement with each statement, providing insights into what attributes they value the most and least when considering prawn purchases. Total and mean scores were calculated for each statement using the following Equations (3) and (4):

Total score = (1 × Count of ‘strongly disagree’) + (2 × Count of ‘disagree’) + (3 × Count of ‘neutral’) + (4 × Count of ‘agree’) + (5 × Count of ‘strongly agree’)

(3)

Mean score = Total score ÷ Number of responses

(4)

After calculating the total and mean scores for each statement, they were ranked to determine the prawn attributes that are most and least important to the consumers. The ranking was based on the mean scores, where a higher mean score indicated a higher importance placed by the consumers on that specific prawn attribute.

2.2.3. Logistic Regression Model

To quantify the effect of significant determinants on the consumers’ purchasing decisions, a logistic regression model (i.e., logit model) was constructed to assess the probability of a consumer purchasing prawns based on various attributes and factors [38] as follows (5):

$$\begin{array}{c}\log ({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{P}(\mathrm{Y}=1)}{1-\mathrm{P}(\mathrm{Y}=1)})}={\beta }_0+{\beta }_1\text{(SIZE)}+{\beta }_2\text{(FRESHNESS)}+{\beta }_3\text{(TASTE)}+{\beta }_4\text{(PRICE)}+{\beta }_5\text{(INCOME)} +\\ {\beta }_6\text{(EDUCATION)}+{\beta }_7\text{(AVAILABILITY)}+ϵ\end{array}$$

(5)

where Y = Probability of a consumer purchasing prawns (1 for purchase, 0 otherwise); SIZE = Size of prawns (g); FRESHNESS = Freshness of prawns (1 for fresh, 0 otherwise); TASTE = Taste of prawns (1 for taste as expected, 0 otherwise); PRICE = Market price of prawns (BDT/kg); INCOME = Monthly income of consumers (BDT); EDUCATION = Literacy level of consumers (1 for literate, 0 otherwise); AVAILABILITY = Availability of prawns in the market (1 for available, 0 otherwise); β₀ = Intercept; β₁ to β₇ = Regression coefficients of the respective independent variables; and ϵ = Error term.

The significance of each coefficient was determined using p-values, with the standard error providing a measure of the variability of the coefficient estimate. The model’s goodness-of-fit was assessed using a chi-square statistic and the Hosmer–Lemeshow test, while the explanatory power of the model was evaluated through the pseudo R² value.

2.2.4. Structural Equation Modeling

To understand the influence of various prawn attributes on the consumers’ perceived value and their willingness-to-pay, structural equation modeling was employed [39]. The model included two main equations describing these relationships as follows ((6) and (7)):

PERCEIVED VALUE = μ₁(SIZE) + μ₂(FRESHNESS) + μ₃(SUSTAINABILITY) + μ₄(PACKAGING) + μ₅(ORIGIN) + φ

(6)

WILLINGNESS-TO-PAY = λ₁(PERCEIVED VALUE) + λ₂(INCOME) + λ₃(AGE) + ς

(7)

where PERCEIVED VALUE = Overall assessment of the prawn attributes in terms of their expected quality and benefits (composite score derived from a likert scale); WILLINGNESS-TO-PAY = Economic value consumers place on prawns (BDT/purchase); SIZE = Size of prawns (rated from 1 for ‘very small’ to 5 for ‘very large’ in a likert scale); FRESHNESS = Freshness of prawns (rated from 1 for ‘not fresh’ to 5 for ‘very fresh’ in a likert scale); SUSTAINABILITY = Consumers’ awareness considering environmentally sustainable sources of prawn (rated from 1 for ‘not sustainable’ to 5 for ‘highly sustainable’ in a likert scale); PACKAGING = Appeal of the prawn packaging (rated from 1 for ‘poor packaging’ to 5 for ‘excellent packaging’ in a likert scale); ORIGIN = Geographical source of the prawns (rated from 1 for ‘low preference for locally sourced’ to 5 for ‘high preference for locally sourced’ in a likert scale); INCOME = Monthly income of consumers (BDT); AGE = Age of consumers (years); μ₁ to μ₇ and λ₁ to λ₃ = Regression coefficients of the respective independent variables; and φ and ς = Error terms.

The likert scale was used to facilitate the quantification of subjective assessments [40], making it possible to integrate the ordinal data into the model to analyze the perceived value and willingness-to-pay effectively. The model’s goodness-of-fit was assessed using the chi-square test, root mean square error of approximation (acceptable fit threshold < 0.06), comparative fit index (acceptable fit threshold > 0.90), and Tucker–Lewis index (acceptable fit threshold > 0.90).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Consumers

The socioeconomic characteristics of the prawn consumers surveyed reveal a diverse demographic profile, as shown in

Table 1. Socioeconomic characteristics of the consumers.

Particulars		Information on Particulars
Family size		4 persons
Sex	Male	55%
	Female	45%
Age	Below 15 years	10%
	15 to 55 years	70%
	Above 55 years	20%
Residential area	Rural	40%
	Urban	60%
Occupational status	Agriculture	30%
	Service	25%
	Business	20%
	Wage labour	15%
	Others (van/rickshaw pulling, shop keeping, remittance, etc.)	10%
Literacy level	Illiterate	10%
	Primary and secondary	30%
	Higher secondary and above	60%
Monthly income		BDT 32,000 (USD 270/EUR 251/CNY 1958)
Monthly expenditure		BDT 26,000 (USD 219/EUR 204/CNY 1591)

Note: At the time of data collection, BDT 1 = USD 0.0084/EUR 0.0079/CNY 0.0612 [41].

. The average family size was four persons, with 55% of the respondents being male and 45% female. In terms of age, 70% of the respondents were between 15 and 55 years old, 20% were above 55, and 10% were below 15 years. The residential distribution shows that 60% of the respondents were from urban areas, while 40% were from rural areas. Regarding occupational status, 30% of the respondents were involved in agriculture, 25% in service, 20% in business, 15% in wage labor, and 10% in other occupations, such as van or rickshaw pulling and shopkeeping. The literacy levels among the respondents varied, with 10% being illiterate, 30% having a primary and secondary education, and 60% possessing a higher secondary education or above. The average monthly income was BDT 32,000 (USD 270/EUR 251/CNY 1958), with an average monthly expenditure of BDT 26,000 (USD 219/EUR 204/CNY 1591).

The demographic analysis highlights important trends in prawn consumption behavior. The higher representation of urban consumers (60%) suggests a greater access to prawn markets in cities, where disposable incomes are generally higher, allowing for more frequent purchases [42]. The dominance of the 15 to 55 age group (70%) as the primary decision-makers in prawn purchases aligns with their active role in household food provisioning. The balanced male-to-female ratio (55% male, 45% female) indicates a shared responsibility in food purchasing, though males, especially in rural areas, tend to act as the primary buyers [43]. The occupational distribution, with 30% in agriculture and 25% in service, reflects the broad socioeconomic spectrum of people consuming prawns, indicating its appeal across different income and job sectors.

A considerable portion of consumers with higher secondary education or above (60%) suggests a potentially higher awareness of the health and dietary benefits associated with prawn consumption, which could influence the purchasing decisions. Furthermore, this higher education level may correlate with better employment and income, enhancing the purchasing power for premium seafood products [44]. Literacy and educational attainment can influence consumers’ choices significantly, affecting their ability to access and understand information about prawn products, including health benefits, cooking methods, and sustainability issues [45]. This knowledge potentially increases their willingness to invest in higher-quality prawn products, aligning with their health-conscious and ethical consumption values. The highest amount of monthly income was found to be allocated for purchasing food, suggesting that prawn consumption may be income-sensitive, with stable-income households more likely to purchase prawns regularly [46]. This indicates that, while prawn consumption spans a variety of socioeconomic groups, economic stability enhances the frequency and volume of prawn purchases, emphasizing the need for targeted marketing and product placement strategies to cater to different income groups effectively.

3.2. Prawn Consumption Behavior of the Consumers

A quantitative analysis of the prawn consumption behavior of the respondents is outlined in Figure 1. The majority of the respondents (54.17%) reported consuming prawns one to five times a month, indicating a moderate frequency, while 25.00% consume prawns one to three times a week, showing a regular consumption pattern. Consumption during special occasions was noted by 20.83% of the respondents. The preference for consuming prawns mostly one to five times a month reflects the balanced integration of this seafood into regular diets without it being a daily staple. This frequency also suggests prawn dishes are more than occasional treats, likely because of their perceived value or dietary preferences among consumers [47]. When considering the types of prawns, a substantial preference for fresh prawns was found, with 66.67% of the consumers favoring this option, followed by prepared prawns (20.83%) and frozen prawns (12.50%). The high preference for fresh prawns underscores the importance of product freshness in consumer decision-making, likely associated with the perceived quality and taste [48].

The local fish market emerged as the most popular purchase location (68.33%), compared to supermarkets (22.50%) and online platforms (9.17%), as these markets typically promise the freshest catch in contrast to the more processed options available in supermarkets or online [49]. In terms of size preference, large prawns (25–40 g/prawn) were preferred by 46.67% of the consumers, with medium-sized prawns (15–25 g/prawn) also showing a strong preference at 40.00%. Small prawns (<15 g/prawn) were the least preferred, chosen by only 13.33% of the respondents. The choice of large and medium prawns over small ones is typically influenced by the cooking versatility and satisfaction associated with larger sizes, which are often perceived as better value for money and more suitable for a variety of recipes that highlight the prawn as the main ingredient [50]. The primary context for the prawn consumption was predominantly home cooking (66.67%), followed by dining out (25.00%) and snacks (8.33%). This aligns with the global trend towards healthier eating practices where consumers prefer to prepare meals at home to better control the ingredients and cooking methods [51]. The less frequent consumption of prawns as snacks or in dining out settings might indicate niche market opportunities for ready-to-eat prawn snacks or more prawn-based dishes in restaurants [52].

Overall, these findings suggest that marketing strategies for prawns should focus on emphasizing the freshness and size of the prawns, leveraging the preference for purchasing from local fish markets. Educating consumers about the nutritional benefits and diverse culinary uses of frozen and prepared prawns might also help expand their market share. Additionally, promoting prawns as a component of home-cooked meals could resonate well with the current consumer preference trends, potentially increasing their consumption frequency.

3.3. Impact of Consumers’ Income on Prawn Purchase Expenditure

This study reveals a correlation between the income brackets and prawn consumption patterns among the consumers (

Table 2. Consumers’ expenditure on prawn purchases by income level.

Monthly Level of Income	Quantity Purchased (kg/Month)	Expenditure on Quantity Purchased (BDT/Month)
High (>BDT 40,000)	1.30	1170
Medium (BDT 20,000–BDT 40,000)	2.00	1800
Low (<BDT 20,000)	0.80	720

Note: At the time of data collection, the average market price of prawn was BDT 900 per kg; BDT 1 = USD 0.0084/EUR 0.0079/CNY 0.0612 [41].

and Figure 2), offering insights that align with Engel’s law of consumption [53], which posits that the proportion of income allocated to food decreases as income rises. The consumers in the high-income level (>BDT 40,000) purchase prawns totaling 1.30 kg per month at an expenditure of BDT 1170. This group demonstrates a lower expenditure relative to their income, emphasizing prawns are a luxury rather than a necessity, which is indicative of Engel’s law, where higher incomes lead to a reduced proportion of spending on food. In contrast, the consumers within the medium-income level (BDT 20,000–BDT 40,000) show a higher engagement in prawn consumption, purchasing 2.00 kg per month at an expenditure of BDT 1800. This suggests a higher proportional spending on prawns compared to their high-income counterparts, indicating that prawns may constitute a more important part of the dietary preference or necessity in this group, somewhat deviating from Engel’s prediction. The low-income group (<BDT 20,000), facing more budget constraints, purchases the least amount, with 0.80 kg per month, costing BDT 720. This segment adheres most closely to Engel’s law, highlighting a sharp decline in non-essential food expenditure as income decreases. This pattern underlines the economic barriers that limit prawn consumption among lower-income consumers, similar to the findings reported by Uddin et al. (2019) [54] in the cases of pangas and tilapia fish consumption in Bangladesh.

These findings suggest nuanced consumer behavior within the prawn market, influenced by income but slightly diverging from Engel’s traditional predictions. While the higher-income consumers may not increase their prawn consumption proportionally, their consistent expenditure suggests a selective preference for prawns as part of a diversified diet. The lower-income consumers’ reduced consumption highlights the economic constraints impacting discretionary food purchases [46]. This analysis highlights the need to adapt marketing strategies and product offerings to match differences in income and consumer behavior. It suggests opportunities for introducing budget-friendly prawn options for lower-income consumers and refining products for middle and high-income consumers to improve the overall market penetration [55].

Table 3. Estimation of consumers’ expenditure on purchasing prawns with 10% increase in income.

Particulars	Consumers’ Group by Monthly Income
	High-Income (>BDT 40,000)	Medium-Income (BDT 20,000–BDT 40,000)	Low-Income (<BDT 20,000)
Current income (BDT/month)	52,000	28,000	16,000
Income with 10% increase (BDT/month)	57,200	30,800	17,600
Income elasticity of demand for prawns	1.39	1.54	1.14
Current expenditure on purchasing prawns (BDT/month)	1170	1800	720
New expenditure on purchasing prawns (BDT/month)	1333	2077	802
Change in expenditure on purchasing prawns	13.93%	15.39%	11.39%

Note: income elasticities of demand for prawns are adapted from Kumar et al. (2005) [56]. Note: at the time of data collection, BDT 1 = USD 0.0084/EUR 0.0079/CNY 0.0612 [41].

demonstrates how a 10% increase in income impacts the prawn expenditure across the various income groups, using income elasticities adapted from Kumar et al. (2005) [56]. The high-income consumers (>BDT 40,000) exhibit a 13.93% increase in their prawn expenditure with a corresponding income increase, reflecting an income elasticity of 1.39. This indicates that the prawn consumption in this bracket is somewhat elastic, with the spending on prawns growing faster than the income, suggesting that prawns are perceived as a luxury good. For the medium-income consumers (BDT 20,000–BDT 40,000), the elasticity is 1.54, resulting in a 15.39% increase in the prawn expenditure when the income rises. This group shows a higher responsiveness, which may reflect a greater relative valuation of prawns or a preference shift toward higher quality or quantity as disposable income increases. Conversely, the low-income consumers (<BDT 20,000) show an elasticity of 1.14, with the prawn expenditure increasing by 11.39%, indicating that prawns are considered less of a necessity and more of a luxury, even among the most economically constrained. Analyzing the income and price elasticities of fish demand in India, Kumar et al. (2005) [56] also projected an increase in the fish demand with a higher income. These findings illustrate diverse consumer behaviors and suggest that marketing strategies should be adapted to align with varying income-responsive demands.

3.4. Consumers’ Perceptions About Purchasing Prawns

To provide a quantified view of which attributes the consumers value most and least when purchasing prawns, a semantic differential scale approach was followed. The respondents were asked to rate a series of statements pertaining to different attributes of prawns, such as size, taste, freshness, texture, origin, packaging effectiveness, price considerations, and sustainability. The ratings were then analyzed to compute the mean and total scores for each statement, as presented in

Table 4. Analysis of consumers’ perceptions about purchasing prawns using a semantic differential scale.

Statements	Consumers’ Responses					Total Score	Mean Score	Rank
	Strongly Disagree (1)	Disagree (2)	Neutral (3)	Agree (4)	Strongly Agree (5)
The taste of the prawns is crucial	2	8	10	50	50	498	4.15	1
	1.66	6.67	8.33	41.67	41.67
The origin of prawns impacts consumer choice	10	15	50	30	15	385	3.21	5
	8.33	12.50	41.67	25.00	12.50
Sustainability of prawns matters	20	30	40	20	10	330	2.75	8
	16.67	25.00	33.33	16.67	8.33
Larger prawns are preferred for better meals	10	20	30	40	20	400	3.33	4
	8.33	16.67	25.00	33.33	16.67
The freshness of the prawns is important	3	7	20	45	45	482	4.02	2
	2.50	5.83	16.67	37.50	37.50
Price is a primary consideration	15	25	35	30	15	365	3.04	7
	12.50	20.83	29.17	25.00	12.50
Effective packaging ensures prawn quality	18	22	30	30	20	372	3.10	6
	15.00	18.33	25.00	25.00	16.67
Texture influences buying decisions	5	10	15	40	50	480	4.00	3
	4.17	8.33	12.50	33.33	41.67

Note: Italicized numbers represent percentages of responses.

, which helped to determine their relative importance based on the consumer perceptions.

The analysis of the consumer perceptions highlighted distinct preferences toward prawn attributes. The statement “The taste of the prawns is crucial” received the highest endorsement, achieving a total score of 498 and a mean score of 4.15. Notably, 41.67% of the respondents strongly agreed with this statement, underscoring its importance. Following closely in importance was the statement “The freshness of the prawns is important”, which attained a total score of 482 and a mean score of 4.02, with 37.50% of the consumers agreeing strongly. The preference of texture was also noticeable, shown by a high total score of 480 and a mean score of 4.00, with 41.67% strongly agreeing. On the contrary, the statement “Sustainability of prawns matters” ranked lowest with a total score of 330 and a mean score of 2.75, reflecting the trivial consumer concern for environmental factors, where only 8.33% strongly agreed. The statements regarding the origin and size of prawns, price considerations, and packaging effectiveness occupied intermediate ranks, reflecting their moderate influence on the purchasing decisions. For instance, 25.00% of the respondents agreed that the origin of prawns impacts their consumer choice, while 16.67% felt the same about the effectiveness of packaging.

The results of this study emphasize that sensory-related statements, particularly regarding taste, freshness, and texture, dominate consumer priorities when purchasing prawns. The high rankings of these sensory attributes clearly indicate that consumers place a premium on the quality and sensory appeal of prawns [57]. This finding is critical for producers and marketers who aim to align their product offerings with consumer expectations. Enhancing these attributes could not only drive sales but also foster a stronger brand loyalty among consumers who value these qualities [58,59]. Conversely, the relatively low ranking of the statement “Sustainability of prawns matters” presents a complex challenge. Despite a growing global awareness of environmental issues, this aspect ranks lowest in influencing consumer purchasing decisions in the prawn market. A similar report on this disparity by Guo (2017) [60] suggests a significant gap between environmental consciousness and consumer behavior. It might reflect a lack of visible immediate benefit to the consumer or perhaps a deficiency in consumer education about how sustainable practices in prawn harvesting impact both the environment and the quality of the prawns themselves.

The moderate influence of the statements related to the origin and size of prawns and price considerations indicates that, while these factors are taken into account, they do not overshadow the primary sensory experiences associated with the product. This finding suggests that consumers might consider these factors secondary or conditional, important only when they do not compromise the primary sensory attributes of the prawns. Furthermore, the statement regarding packaging effectiveness, which reflects a concern for quality preservation, points to an opportunity for innovation. Although it does not rank as highly as taste or freshness, effective packaging could be a key differentiator in markets where consumers are more aware of or concerned with product freshness and safety. Packaging that visibly enhances product preservation or communicates quality could elevate consumer perception and influence [61,62].

These findings underscore the need for targeted marketing strategies that emphasize the taste and freshness of prawns, backed by concrete demonstrations of these attributes at the point of sale [63]. Additionally, there is a clear need for educational campaigns to bridge the gap between the perceived importance of sustainability and consumer purchase behavior [64]. By addressing these findings, stakeholders in the prawn industry can better fit their approaches to meet consumer demands and potentially foster a more environmentally conscious consumer base.

3.5. Determinants Affecting Consumers’ Decision to Purchase Prawns

Consumers’ decisions to purchase prawns are influenced by a range of product attributes and socioeconomic factors such as the size of prawns, freshness of prawns, taste of prawns, price of prawns, income of the consumers, literacy level of the consumers, and availability of prawns; these factors play crucial roles in shaping purchasing behavior. Understanding the weight of each determinant is vital for prawn marketers and producers aiming to meet consumer demand more effectively. The estimated equation for the logistic regression model used to predict the likelihood that a consumer will purchase prawns based on various attributes is as follows (8):

Y = −2.00 + 0.80(SIZE) + 1.25(FRESHNESS) + 0.50(TASTE) − 0.60(PRICE) + 0.40(INCOME) + 0.30(EDUCATION) + 0.70(AVAILABILITY)

(8)

The logistic regression analysis shows that several prawn attributes and socioeconomic factors significantly influence the consumers’ purchasing decisions (

Table 5. Results of logistic regression on determinants affecting consumers’ prawn purchasing decisions.

Variables/Metrics	Coefficients (β)	Standard Errors	p-Values	Interpretation	Key Insights from the Attributes and Factors
Intercept	−2.00	0.50	0.001	Baseline probability of purchase without attributes considered	-
SIZE	0.80 *	0.25	0.002	Larger prawns significantly increase the likelihood of purchase	Larger prawns are often seen as premium Preferred by higher-income consumers
FRESHNESS	1.25 *	0.30	0.000	Freshness strongly drives consumer decision to purchase prawns	A universal priority indicating quality Fresh prawns are preferred in all regions
TASTE	0.50 **	0.20	0.015	Taste plays a moderate but significant role in consumer choice	Important for culinary use, especially in diverse dishes Enhances flavor appeal
PRICE	−0.60 **	0.28	0.030	Higher prices reduce the likelihood of purchase	Key for price-sensitive consumers Affordability is crucial, especially in rural areas
INCOME	0.40 **	0.18	0.025	High-income consumers are more likely to buy premium prawns	High-income groups tend to buy more premium prawn products High income is associated with less sensitivity to price fluctuations
EDUCATION	0.30	0.22	0.080	Consumers with higher education are somewhat more likely to buy	Higher education correlates with greater awareness of health benefits Educational campaigns could effectively boost consumption
AVAILABILITY	0.70 *	0.24	0.005	Availability increases the likelihood of purchase	Crucial in regions with inconsistent supply Influences purchasing frequency
Chi-square	14.50		0.045	-
Hosmer–Lemeshow test	12.10		0.058	-
Pseudo R2	0.620

Note: * and ** indicate significance at 1% and 5% probability level, respectively.

). The freshness of prawns (β = 1.25, p < 0.001), size of prawns (β = 0.80, p = 0.002), and taste of prawns (β = 0.50, p = 0.015) are all statistically significant, indicating that these attributes strongly drive the consumers’ preferences. Additionally, the price of prawns (β = −0.60, p = 0.030) is significant, with higher prices reducing the likelihood of purchase. The income of the consumers (β = 0.40, p = 0.025) and availability of prawns (β = 0.70, p = 0.005) are also important factors influencing the purchase decisions, with the consumers having higher incomes and those with better access to prawns being more likely to buy. The consumers’ literacy level (p = 0.080) shows a marginal effect but is not statistically significant at the 5% level. The model demonstrated a chi-square statistic of 14.50 (p = 0.045), suggesting that the model fits the data well. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test yielded a chi-square of 12.10 (p = 0.058), further confirming the adequacy of the model. Additionally, the model’s pseudo R² value was 0.620, indicating a strong explanatory power regarding the variability in the consumers’ purchasing decisions.

The results highlight the critical role of several prawn attributes in the consumers’ decision-making. The freshness of prawns emerges as the most significant determinant (p < 0.001), indicating that the consumers prioritize fresh prawns, associating it with higher quality and food safety. This is consistent with prior studies, emphasizing that freshness remains a top concern for seafood consumers [65]. Similarly, the size of prawns (p = 0.002) plays a significant role, especially among the consumers with higher income who view larger prawns as premium products, reflecting their willingness to pay more for a better quality [66]. The taste of prawns (p = 0.015) also contributes significantly, particularly in urban markets where prawns are used in a variety of dishes, underscoring the importance of flavor in shaping consumer preferences [67].

The price of prawns (p = 0.030), while important, has a negative effect on the purchasing decisions, indicating that higher prices discourage more price-sensitive consumers, particularly those in lower-income or rural areas [68]. This reinforces the need for affordable prawn options in such markets. Additionally, the income of the consumers (p = 0.025) and availability of prawns (p = 0.005) play substantial roles in influencing the purchasing behavior. Higher-income households are more likely to purchase premium prawns [69], while availability is critical, especially in rural areas where supply chain challenges can limit access to fresh prawns [55]. While the consumers’ literacy level (p = 0.080) shows a marginal effect, it is not statistically significant, indicating that other factors, such as the consumers’ income and product attributes, have a more substantial influence on the purchasing decisions. The model’s fit metrics collectively confirm that the logistic regression model effectively captures the significant influences of the prawn attributes and socioeconomic factors on the purchasing behavior. The analysis reveals that attributes such as freshness, size, and taste significantly drive consumer preferences, with socioeconomic factors like income and availability also playing crucial roles. By focusing on these determinants, prawn marketers and producers can target a broad range of consumers effectively while maintaining competitive pricing strategies.

3.6. Consumers’ Perceived Value and Willingness-to-Pay for Prawn Attributes

To analyze how various prawn attributes impact the consumers’ perceived value and their willingness-to-pay, structural equation modeling was utilized. The prawn attributes including size, freshness, sustainability, packaging, and origin were examined and their effects on the consumers’ perceptions were quantified. The relationships were quantitatively modeled, and the key findings are summarized in

Table 6. Results of structural equation modeling analysis on the impact of prawn attributes on perceived value and willingness-to-pay.

Variables/Indices	Coefficient	Standard Error	Critical Ratio	p-Value
PERCEIVED VALUE (Coefficient = μ)
SIZE	0.30 *	0.07	4.29	0.000
FRESHNESS	0.47 *	0.07	6.71	0.000
SUSTAINABILITY	0.17 **	0.08	2.13	0.033
PACKAGING	0.10	0.06	1.67	0.095
ORIGIN	−0.05	0.05	−1.00	0.317
WILLINGNESS-TO-PAY (Coefficient = λ)
INCOME	0.15 *	0.04	3.75	0.000
PERCEIVED VALUE	0.68 *	0.05	13.6	0.000
AGE	0.02	0.03	0.67	0.503
Chi-square	102.47		0.062
Degrees of freedom	85
Root mean square error of approximation	0.05
Comparative fit index	0.93
Tucker–Lewis index	0.92

Note: * and ** indicate significant at 1% and 5% probability level, respectively.

. The mathematical representation of these relationships is expressed through the following Equations (9) and (10):

PERCEIVED VALUE = 0.30(SIZE) + 0.47(FRESHNESS) + 0.17(SUSTAINABILITY) + 0.10(PACKAGING) − 0.05(ORIGIN)

(9)

WILLINGNESS-TO-PAY = 0.68(PERCEIVED VALUE) + 0.15(INCOME) + 0.02(AGE)

(10)

The estimates demonstrated the significant influences of prawn size (μ = 0.30, p = 0.000) and prawn freshness (μ = 0.47, p < 0.000) on the perceived value, establishing these attributes as critical in shaping the consumers’ perceptions. Although sustainability showed a positive effect on the perceived value (μ = 0.17, p = 0.033), the attributes of packaging and origin did not significantly impact that, with p-values of 0.095 and 0.317, respectively. Directly affecting willingness-to-pay, income proved to be a significant factor (λ = 0.15, p = 0.000), while age did not show a significant impact (λ = 0.02, p = 0.503). The model’s overall fit was acceptable, indicated by a chi-square statistic of 102.47 (p = 0.062), suggesting that the model reasonably captures the observed variances and covariances in the data. The fit indices further confirmed the adequacy of the model, with a root mean square error of approximation of 0.05, and both a comparative fit index and Tucker–Lewis index above 0.90 (0.93 and 0.92, respectively), reinforcing the model’s capacity to adequately represent the structural relationships in the consumers’ behavior regarding prawn purchases.

These findings provide critical insights into the dynamics influencing consumer preferences and their willingness-to-pay for various prawn attributes. Significantly, size and freshness have emerged as the most influential attributes, enhancing the perceived value considerably. This finding underscores the importance of these fundamental qualities in the strategy and market positioning of prawn products [25]. Freshness is particularly valued, aligning with the consumer expectations of quality and safety, especially relevant in seafood [70]. Similarly, the preference for larger prawns suggests that the consumers perceive them as offering better value or culinary quality, making them willing to pay a premium [13]. Conversely, while the consumers appreciate visually attractive packaging and clear origin labeling, these factors are secondary to the product’s essential quality when it comes to influencing purchase decisions. This contrasts with the findings of Wang (2013) [71], which highlighted that the perceptions of visual packaging directly impact the consumer judgments of food quality and brand preference. However, as consumer trends towards sustainability and traceability gain momentum [72], these aspects could become more influential, and businesses should stay alert to shifts in consumer attitudes. Educational initiatives are essential in this regard, clearly communicating the environmental and social benefits of sustainable prawn products and emphasizing how such choices support reducing environmental impacts. Highlighting the economic value of sustainability, like long-term cost savings and health benefits, can also shift consumers’ preferences [73]. Integrating modern communication technologies and social media can provide immediate access to sustainability information at the point of purchase, facilitating informed decision-making [74,75]. By enhancing consumer education, stakeholders can drive an important shift towards more sustainable prawn consumption patterns [76]. The significant influence of income on willingness-to-pay highlights a socioeconomic divide in purchasing behaviors, where higher-income consumers are more willing to invest in premium attributes [77]. This demographic insight creates an opportunity for market segmentation, enabling prawn products to be designed to attract higher-income consumers [24]. Interestingly, the analysis also indicates that willingness-to-pay spans across various age groups, suggesting a broad market appeal that does not necessitate age-specific marketing strategies.

The model’s fit indices confirm the effectiveness of the structural equation modeling framework in capturing the complex interrelationships among the studied variables. A good fit reassures that the model is appropriately specified and reliable, reinforcing confidence in the derived strategic insights. These fit metrics validate the empirical model’s robustness and the applicability of its findings in formulating marketing and operational strategies. Given these insights, prawn marketers and producers are advised to focus on enhancing product attributes that are most valued by consumers, such as freshness and size [29]. Quality assurance programs could be vital in supporting these attributes, with certifications and product labels potentially strengthening consumer trust [78]. In addition, creating different product options for various income levels can maximize market penetration [79]. Investing in consumer education about the benefits of premium prawn attributes might also help justify higher price points, enhancing overall market performance [80].

3.7. Policy Recommendations Based on the Study Findings

The detailed understanding of prawn consumption across various income levels revealed by this study provides a fundamental basis for targeted economic and nutritional policies. Recognizing that prawn expenditure is highly elastic among lower-income groups suggests a potential barrier to accessing nutritious seafood, which is often priced beyond their economic reach. To address this, policymakers could introduce subsidies for prawn products or reduce tariffs on imported seafood to lower consumer prices [81]. Such fiscal measures would not only make prawns more accessible but could also help stabilize market prices, mitigating the instability often seen in seafood markets due to seasonal and environmental changes. Additionally, supporting local aquaculture initiatives could serve dual purposes: enhancing food security by increasing prawn availability and fostering local employment, thereby boosting economic resilience in coastal communities [82].

Moreover, the perception of prawns as a luxury item among certain demographic groups indicates a need for educational initiatives that reframe prawns as an accessible source of high-quality protein [83]. Government-led nutrition awareness campaigns could emphasize the health benefits of regular seafood consumption, which includes essential omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals critical for heart health and cognitive function. Such programs could be particularly impactful if paired with cooking demonstrations and recipes that showcase affordable ways to incorporate prawns into daily meals, thereby demystifying seafood preparation and encouraging broader consumption patterns [84,85].

On the environmental front, the increasing consumer interest in sustainable products offers a unique policy lever. Governments could encourage prawn fisheries and farms to adopt sustainable practices through incentives such as tax breaks, certification programs, or direct subsidies [86]. Regulating and promoting environmentally friendly aquaculture practices not only aids in conserving marine biodiversity but also appeals to eco-conscious consumers, potentially expanding market segments that prefer sustainably sourced seafood [87]. By implementing strict oversight and transparency requirements, policymakers can ensure that sustainability claims are verifiable, which helps build consumer trust and could normalize the consumption of sustainably farmed prawns across all income levels [88].

Overall, integrating economic accessibility, nutritional advocacy, and environmental sustainability into the policy framework surrounding prawn consumption can facilitate a more equitable, healthy, and sustainable approach to seafood consumption. These strategies, underpinned by the detailed consumption data from this study, would enable policymakers to craft effective interventions that align consumer behavior with broader public health and environmental goals.

3.8. Limitations of the Study

This study has several limitations that need to be addressed. Primarily, the findings are derived from a relatively small sample size, drawn from a limited geographic area within Bangladesh. Such a constrained sample can introduce biases that may affect the generalizability of the results. For instance, regional differences in economic status, cultural practices, and accessibility to prawns could influence consumer behavior, making it challenging to generalize the findings to the entire population. Furthermore, the variations in income and socioeconomic status within the sampled locations may not be adequately represented, potentially skewing perceptions and reported consumption patterns toward a non-representative segment of the population. Additionally, practical constraints such as budgetary limitations, time constraints, and logistical challenges have further restricted the scope of this study, limiting its broad applicability across different demographic and geographic landscapes. To enhance the robustness of future research, expanding the geographic scope to include a more diverse array of regions and incorporating longitudinal studies would be beneficial. Such approaches would allow for a more comprehensive analysis of the trends and shifts in consumer behavior across different socioeconomic groups over time, providing deeper insights and more reliable data for shaping effective public health and economic policies.

4. Conclusions

This study concludes that prawn consumption is influenced by a complex interplay of factors including income levels, consumers’ perceptions of prawn attributes, and the socioeconomic characteristics of consumers. Notably, high-income consumers demonstrate a tendency to spend more on prawns, aligning with the luxury perception of seafood. This study also highlights that attributes such as freshness, size, and taste are dominant in influencing consumer decisions, confirming the importance of these factors in the seafood market’s dynamics. From a policy perspective, the findings underscore the need for targeted interventions that could help bridge the gap between different income groups and promote prawn consumption across broader demographics. To promote sustainable prawn farming practices, policymakers could implement targeted support such as financial incentives for farmers adopting environmentally friendly techniques, stricter regulatory frameworks to ensure sustainable growth, and certification programs that verify adherence to sustainability standards. These initiatives will not only ensure the environmental and economic sustainability of the prawn industry but also enhance the nutritional intake of the population, contributing to improved public health. By focusing on these strategies, policymakers can leverage this study’s outcomes to formulate robust policies that boost prawn consumption while supporting sustainable agricultural practices.