A Survey of Image Security in Wireless Sensor Networks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Security Issues in WSN
- Confidentiality: Sensed data and control information may be confidential, since their content must not be accessible by intruders or external elements. Control information, such as sensors’ locations and even cryptography keys, is confidential in the sense that it may be exploited to compromise the network. Moreover, some sensed data, as in military applications, may be highly confidential.
- Integrity: While confidentiality avoids attackers stealing data, integrity will be concerned with data changing. If data are manipulated, this may compromise the network operation or even allow the exploitation of other vulnerabilities.
- Authenticity: Since additional packets may be inserted into the network, there should be a way to authenticate their origins. It is then not only necessary to assure that sensed data comes from valid nodes, but also to avoid malicious control information from foreign nodes being processed.
- Freshness: Control messages may propagate information that should only be valid in a defined time scope. Attackers should not be able to exploit old messages, containing, for example, cryptography keys.
- Localization: Sensor localization is a key functionality of wireless sensor networks, especially when they are randomly deployed. Secure localization is then required to allow only accurate information to be considered.
- Availability: Wireless sensor networks are subject to different availability attacks, which may severely compromise the network operation. Such attacks can disconnect nodes, part of the network or even avoid relevant areas of a monitored field being sensed by any sensor node [11].
2.1. Vulnerabilities and Attacks
- Interruption: when network availability is compromised, usually resulting from DoS attacks.
- Interception: when network confidentiality is compromised, allowing unauthorized access to sensor nodes and sensed data.
- Modification: when network integrity is compromised, with modified packets potentially leading to an unexpected and misled operation of the network.
- Fabrication: when network authentication is compromised, the trustworthiness of network elements and transmitted data may be affected by false information.
2.2. Defense Mechanisms
3. Image Cryptography
3.1. Symmetric Encryption
- Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): This is one of the most popular symmetric encryption algorithms [27]. Also known as Rijndael, AES is an encryption scheme by blocking used in large-scale systems. In WSN, this is the main mechanism of encryption adopted by the WirelessHART standard [28]. An energy-efficient security scheme that uses AES as the main encryption algorithm for WSN is presented in [29].
- Data Encryption Standard (DES): This is a low-complexity algorithm that uses a small 56-bit key [30]. Despite some failures, DES was studied more thoroughly in academia, motivating the development of modern systems of cryptanalysis.
- International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA): This algorithm is a block cipher designed to be the replacement for DES [31]. It exploits confusion and diffusion to produce the cipher text, with 128-bit keys and the use of XOR gates, 16-bit addition and multiplication (as operations are made with blocks of 16 bits, the algorithm is very efficient in 16-bit microprocessors, common in sensor motes).
3.2. Asymmetric Encryption
- RSA: Based on classical theories of numbers, this was also employed to provide support to the concept of the digital signature, becoming one of the major innovations in public-key cryptography [35].
- Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC): This is a collective term for multiple key exchange algorithms and agreement protocols [36,37] (e.g., ECDH (Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman), ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm) and ECMV (Elliptic Curve Menezes-Vanstone) [32]. ECC provides security equivalent to RSA, but with much smaller keys, becoming more attractive for WSN. In general, smaller keys generate less memory usage, more bandwidth savings and less computing overhead [38].
Algorithm | Signature | Key exchange | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
- | Sign | Verify | Client | Server |
RSA-1024 | 304 | 11.9 | 15.4 | 304 |
ECC-160 | 22.82 | 45.09 | 22.3 | 22.3 |
RSA-2048 | 2302.7 | 53.7 | 57.2 | 2302.7 |
ECC-224 | 61.54 | 121.98 | 60.4 | 60.4 |
3.3. Key Management
4. Selective Image Encryption
4.1. Quadtree-Based Image Coding
4.2. Wavelet-Based Image Coding
5. Watermarking
6. Secure Image Monitoring
6.1. Image Compression and Aggregation
6.2. Processing of Image Contents
6.3. Hardware Performance
7. Research Directions
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gonçalves, D.D.O.; Costa, D.G. A Survey of Image Security in Wireless Sensor Networks. J. Imaging 2015, 1, 4-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/jimaging1010004
Gonçalves DDO, Costa DG. A Survey of Image Security in Wireless Sensor Networks. Journal of Imaging. 2015; 1(1):4-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/jimaging1010004
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonçalves, Danilo De Oliveira, and Daniel G. Costa. 2015. "A Survey of Image Security in Wireless Sensor Networks" Journal of Imaging 1, no. 1: 4-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/jimaging1010004