Hazardous Waste Management: An African Overview
Abstract
:1. Introduction
The African Scenario
2. Identification and Classification of Hazardous Waste
- i.
- The F list categorizes waste from conventional engineering and industrial processes as hazardous; examples include spent solvent residues, agents used for wood preservation, and others.
- ii.
- The K list categorizes hazardous wastes from sectors of industry and manufacturing and is source-specific waste. Industries that generate this class of waste are iron and steel production, pesticide manufacturing, wood preservation.
- iii.
- The P list and U list comprises hazardous waste of pure and marketable grade formulations of certain unused substances that are to be disposed of Hazardous waste materials can also be classified based on the threat levels they pose. A study by [40] ranked hazardous waste into high-risk wastes, intermediate risk wastes, and low-risk wastes.
- iv.
- High-risk waste: Materials that contain high concentrations of toxic, mobile bioaccumulative constituents, such as chlorinated solvents and cyanide waste PCB (polychrome biphenyl).
- v.
- Transitional risk wastes: These wastes contain metal hydroxide sludges.
- vi.
- Low-risk wastes: Waste that provides a high volume of low hazard waste and some putrescible waste.
3. Public Health Concerns
4. Management and Control of Hazardous Waste in Africa
- i.
- Establishment of public enlightenment on the potentials of hazardous materials recycling.
- ii.
- Source reduction from the point of generation
- iii.
- Development of human capacity on effective recycling technologies.
- iv.
- Assessment and evaluation of management schemes alongside reporting platforms.
- v.
- Improvement of suitable structure, practical awareness, and know-how.
- vi.
- Solidification and restructuring of current regulatory structures.
- vii.
- The endowment of finance for the development of modern infrastructure to curb these hazards.
- viii.
- Provincial hazardous waste control systems.
5. Hazardous Waste Models and Process Flow
6. Some Critical Processes and Operations
6.1. Landfill Operations
6.2. Recycling
7. Conclusions and Recommendation
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BAN | Basel Action Network |
CFR | Code of Federal Regulations |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
E-waste | Electronic waste |
EEAA | Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency |
ECZ | The Environmental Council of Zambia |
EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
HW | Hazardous Waste |
HHW | Household Hazardous Waste |
HIV | Human Immunodeficiency Virus |
Hg | Mercury |
IHW | Industrial Hazardous Waste |
Mn | Manganese |
MT | Metric tons |
NEMA | National Environmental Management Authority |
NESREA | National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency |
NGO | Non-Governmental Organization |
OECD | Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development |
PC | Personal computer |
PCB | Polychrome biphenyl |
SO2 | Sulfur dioxide |
UNEP | United Nations Environmental Protection |
USEPA | United States Environmental Protection Agency |
WHO | World Health Organization |
Zn | Zinc |
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African Countries | x1000 tons/yr | kg/Person/yr | Others (Selected Randomly) | X1000 tons/yr | kg/Person/yr |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Algeria | 185 | 6 | China | 9520 | 7 |
Angola | 270 | 20 | Indonesia | 3143 | 14 |
Benin | 428 | 65 | India | 7244 | 7 |
Botswana | 37 | 20 | Lebanon | 2217 | 616 |
Burkina Faso | 257 | 20 | Malaysia | 420 | 18 |
Burundi | 135 | 20 | Russia | 139,194 | 966 |
Cameroon | 321 | 20 | United Kingdom | 5568 | 94 |
Cape Verde | 10 | 20 | Germany | 15,532 | 188 |
Central Africa Republic | 78 | 20 | Estonia | 6206 | 4774 |
Chad | 170 | 20 | Denmark | 374 | 69 |
Comoros | 14 | 20 | Australia | 649 | 33 |
Congo | 74 | 20 | New Zealand | 55 | 14 |
Cote d’Ivoire | 335 | 20 | Singapore | 204 | 49 |
Democratic Republic of Congo | 1046 | 20 | Philippines | 1138 | 14 |
Djibouti | 14 | 20 | Sri Lanka | 41 | 2 |
Egypt | 1440 | 20 | Syria | 10,714 | 616 |
Equitorial Guinea | 10 | 20 | Mexico | 3706 | 36 |
Eritrea | 82 | 20 | Canada | 3245 | 104 |
Ethiopia | 1409 | 20 | United States | 37,033 | 127 |
Gabon | 27 | 20 | Cuba | 941 | 83 |
Gambia | 29 | 20 | Argentina | 2530 | 67 |
Ghana | 419 | 20 | Belize | 1 | 3 |
Guinea | 172 | 20 | Bolivia | 573 | 67 |
Guinea-Bissau | 29 | 20 | Brazil | 11,740 | 67 |
Kenya | 643 | 20 | Chile | 1039 | 67 |
Lesotho | 37 | 20 | Colombia | 2897 | 67 |
Liberia | 66 | 20 | Costa Rica | 273 | 67 |
Libya | 110 | 20 | Iraq | 15,091 | 616 |
Madagascar | 345 | 20 | Iran | 168 | 2 |
Malawi | 243 | 20 | Kazakhstan | 130 | 8 |
Mali | 257 | 20 | Kiribati | 1 | 14 |
Mauritania | 57 | 20 | Kuwait | 25 | 10 |
Mauritius | 0 | 0 | Kyrgyzstan | 6780 | 1329 |
Morocco | 987 | 33 | Laos | 80 | 14 |
Mozambique | 378 | 20 | Puerto Rico | 260 | 67 |
Namibia | 41 | 20 | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 3 | 67 |
Niger | 24 | 2 | Saint Lucia | 0 | 3 |
Nigeria | 2469 | 20 | St Vincent and The Grenadines | 7 | 67 |
Rwanda | 170 | 20 | Trinidad and Tobago | 87 | 67 |
Sao Tome and Principe | 4 | 20 | Hungary | 3413 | 345 |
Senegal | 202 | 20 | Iceland | 13 | 45 |
Seychelles | 2 | 20 | Ireland | 492 | 126 |
Sierra Leone | 98 | 20 | Italy | 4279 | 74 |
Somalia | 194 | 20 | Latvia | 93 | 40 |
South Africa | 915 | 20 | Liechtenstein | 4 | 118 |
Sudan | 672 | 20 | Lithuania | 111 | 32 |
Swaziland | 22 | 20 | Luxemburg | 101 | 253 |
Togo | 98 | 20 | Panama | 206 | 67 |
Tunisia | 198 | 20 | Paraguay | 380 | 67 |
Uganda | 511 | 20 | Peru | 1785 | 67 |
Tanzania | 741 | 20 | Suriname | 27 | 67 |
Western Sahara | 6 | 20 | Uruguay | 226 | 67 |
Zambia | 219 | 20 | Venezuela | 1678 | 67 |
Zimbabwe | 261 | 20 | Israel | 325 | 52 |
Country | Situation and Challenges | Management Schemes and Bodies | National Regulatory Laws | Notable Achievements | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Egypt (North Africa) | An annual environmental deterioration of about $10–$19 billion due to improper waste disposal 6–6.5 million tons with hazardous potentials | Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) | Law 4/1994 | Been able to develop a standard legal framework for the management of Hazardous waste materials but will still require consistent enforcement methods | [67,68] |
Ghana (West Africa) | Bio-medical waste is managed via landfills. Heightened e-waste control and management challenges as e wastes show recycling difficulties | Environmental Protection Agency | Local Government Act (1994) Environmental Protection Agency Act (1994) Pesticides Control and Management Act (1996) Environmental Sanitation Policy of Ghana (1999) Guidelines for Bio-medical waste (2000) | The life cycle approach helps to manage hazardous waste in an integrated manner. | [67] |
Kenya (East Africa) | No national statistics on hazardous waste materials generated. Approximately 909,182 tons/year of healthcare waste is generated, with about 75% declared as infectious. Incineration is the most common practice for hazardous waste with some toxic waste finding its way to dumpsites | National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) | Local Government Act cap 265 Public Health Act Cap 242 | Cities such as Nairobi and Kisumu with the backing of UNEP and Un-Habitat are developing their unique Integrated Solid Waste Management Schemes | [67,69] |
Zambia (South Africa) | Nonregistered dumpsites have led to a spike in illegal and indiscriminate disposal of waste materials within the country | The Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ) Radiation Protection Authority | Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act of 1990 | [67,70] |
S/n | Country | Generation Tons/2015 | Treatment Tons/2015 | Export Tons/2015 | Import Tons/2015 | Difference (Gen-Exp + Imp)-Trt. Tons/2015 | Gap %/2015 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Bulgaria | 13,407,042 | 13,389,620 | 2083 | 30,039 | 45,378 | 0% |
2 | Cyprus | 31,288 | 24,201 | 4997 | 0 | 2090 | 8% |
3 | Germany | 21,983,895 | 21,098,397 | 334,327 | 3,077,329 | 3,628,500 | 15% |
4 | Estonia | 9,159,139 | 9,131,275 | 3331 | 17,957 | 42,490 | 0% |
5 | Finland | 1,653,942 | 1,411,308 | 95,455 | 20,459 | 167,638 | 11% |
6 | Netherlands | 4,859,942 | 4,456,188 | 788,476 | 870,338 | 485,616 | 10% |
7 | Poland | 1,737,024 | 1,434,985 | 13,373 | 78,112 | 366,778 | 20% |
Revenue in Million Dollars | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Revenue of Hazardous Waste Collection | Revenue of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal | Year | Revenue of Hazardous Waste Management Industry |
2008 | 2.016 | 5.85 | ||
2009 | 1.89 | 5.697 | 2000 | 3.155 |
2010 | 2.096 | 6.221 | 2005 | 4.532 |
2011 | 2.04 | 6.57 | 2010 | 6.221 |
2012 | 2.249 | 6.698 | 2011 | 6.569 |
2013 | 2.618 | 6.491 | 2012 | 6.698 |
2014 | 2.899 | 8.019 | 2013 | 6.491 |
2015 | 3.225 | 7.915 | 2014 | 8.019 |
2016 | 3.471 | 8.121 | 2015 | 7.915 |
2017 | 3.68 | 8.285 | 2016 | 8.536 |
2018 | 3.844 | 8.408 | 2017 | 9.106 |
2019 | 3.973 | 8.503 | 2018 | 8.925 |
2020 | 4.076 | 8.579 |
S/N | Level of Landfill Control | Rating | Landfills | Characteristics |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | No level of control | 0 |
| Controlled Functions are limited, No leachate collection system, Open dumping, and uncontrolled burning. NB: Not capable of Handling Hazardous Waste |
2 | Semi-controlled Landfill | 5 |
| Absence of leachate collection facilities, unsorted waste materials NB: Not capable of Handling Hazardous Waste |
3 | Medium or Controlled Landfill | 10 |
| A degree of the trained workforce who follow a set of instructions in daily operations, Facilities are available to capture particulates; equipment may be managed appropriately. NB: Not capable of Handling Hazardous Waste |
4 | Engineered Landfill (Medium to High) | 15 |
| A high level of planning is taken in the location, daily operation, and emission control. Daily cover materials are utilized, leachate collection systems are available to a certain degree, and method for gas collection is put in place. NB: Capable of Handling Hazardous Waste |
5 | State of the art Landfill (Highly Controlled) | 20 | N/A | These are state of the art facilities, and they operate in compliance with international regulations and standards. Efficient Hazardous waste management potential, leachate, and gas harnessing are sustainable; plans are put in place for post-closure. NB: Capable of Handling Hazardous Waste |
Country | Hazardous Waste Landfilled (Tons) | Hazardous Waste Recycled (Tons) | Hazardous Waste Incinerated (Tons) |
---|---|---|---|
Benin | 0 | 0 | 1698 |
Cameroon | 47,316 | 1788 | 2686 |
Madagascar | 33,812 | 0 | 12,145 |
Mauritius | 0 | 4194 | 14,460 |
Morocco | 58,810 | 55,144 | 0 |
Niger | 1,057,000 | 0 | 0 |
Nigeria | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Reunion | 1614 | 4938 | 1698 |
South Africa | 38,445,876 | 10,589,308 | 4,184,581 |
Tanzania | 0 | 12 | 389 |
Tunisia | 0 | 40,000 | 0 |
Zambia | 0 | 35,000 | 0 |
Zimbabwe | 0 | 0 | 181 |
Challenge | Solution |
---|---|
1. Lack of Data |
|
2. Little or no Infrastructure |
|
3. Poverty |
|
4. Lack of Awareness |
|
5. Poor enforcement of laws |
|
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Akpan, V.E.; Olukanni, D.O. Hazardous Waste Management: An African Overview. Recycling 2020, 5, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030015
Akpan VE, Olukanni DO. Hazardous Waste Management: An African Overview. Recycling. 2020; 5(3):15. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030015
Chicago/Turabian StyleAkpan, Victor E., and David O. Olukanni. 2020. "Hazardous Waste Management: An African Overview" Recycling 5, no. 3: 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030015
APA StyleAkpan, V. E., & Olukanni, D. O. (2020). Hazardous Waste Management: An African Overview. Recycling, 5(3), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5030015