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2 July 2023

Sustainable Development Goals and End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Battery: Literature Review

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Department of Mechanical, Automotive, and Materials Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
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Batteries2023, 9(7), 353;https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9070353
This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles
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Abstract

With a global urgency to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, there has been an increasing demand for electric vehicles on the roads to replace vehicles that use internal combustion. Subsequently, the demand and consumption of raw materials have increased, and thus, there has been an increasing number of retired lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that contain valuable elements. This literature review paper looks at the following: lifecycle assessments (LCA) of EV batteries, the recycling of LIBs while analyzing what studies have been conducted to improve recycling processes, what recycling facilities have been established or are being planned, studies on the circular economy, the environmental benefits of recycling end-of-life (EOL) batteries, and how LIB recycling is aligned with the Sustainable Devel opment Goals, focusing in particular on Goal 13: Climate Action.

1. Introduction

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) published in 2015 were an achievement for putting both developing and developed countries on the path of sustainable development (United Nations General Assembly, 2015) [1]. Through these goals, the world hopes to transform itself by ensuring human well-being, economic prosperity, and environmental protection, all by 2030. Many difficult issues that affect the globe are considered and worked upon through these SDGs, which consist of 17 goals and 169 targets. However, since these SDGs are linked implicitly, two conflicting goals may hinder the entire process and result in the world deviating from the path [2].
Due to this issue, it is necessary to investigate these interrelations and links between the goals so that we may find possible points of conflict and address them, and these points of concern can be found across [3] and within the SDGs) [4]. While this may seem to be a major problem, it can be noted that this is not the first time such dependencies that cause issues have appeared in global agendas. Plans such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) [5], poverty alleviation [6] and climate change adaptation and mitigation response [7], have also faced and addressed similar issues. Below in Table 1, we have listed the seventeen goals highlighted in the SDG agenda.
Table 1. List of Goals in the SDG Agenda [8].
Of these seventeen goals, our focus is primarily on Goal 13: Climate Action. We will investigate how recycling the LIBs of Electric Vehicles (EVs) around the world plays a role in the progress and success of this goal. To keep the global temperature increase below 2 °C, CO2 emissions must be reduced “by around 25% by 2030 from 2010 levels, and reach net zero by around 2070” [9]. To keep the increase in temperature below 1.5 °C, which is the more optimized and preferred target, there must be a reduction of 45% by 2030 in global human-produced net CO2 emissions compared to the 2010 levels, to reach a net zero near 2050 [9]. Unfortunately, instead of decreasing, emissions have, in fact, increased [10].
There have been several reviews of the current literature regarding LIB recycling, like [11], who focused on recycling and its environmental impact, and [12], who primarily studied recycling technologies and used a Weighted Product Method to choose the best LIB recycling processes. [13] prepared a review using two methodologies, namely ProKnow-C and Methodi Ordinatio, to develop a bibliographic portfolio that presents the latest and best literature regarding LIB recycling. They propose a database of a finite collection of articles and reports with relevant authors to push new research forward on this theme, which is a crucial endeavor. With respect to BEV range anxiety, [14], both address concerns and propose a solution involving Peer to Peer Car Charging (P2C2), which allows EVs to share charge while in motion. Through observations of simulations of this P2C2 solution, they found significant improvement in EV mobility. Furthermore, ref. [15], prepare a literature review of the current and potential charging infrastructures, addressing various strategies in their present use as well as future possibilities.
The purpose of this article is to provide a literature review on battery recycling by considering its evolution and impact on sustainable development. Academic and industrial readers will find it convenient to consider papers and models that we examined and investigated on lifecycle assessments of EV batteries, recycling processes, circular economies, and environmental benefits with an analysis of how the reduction of GHG emissions through battery recycling could enhance the attainment of Goal 13 (climate change) of the SDGs.

2. Research Methodology

This research study was conducted in two stages. Firstly, the key phrases “Recycling Lithium-Ion batteries” and “literature review” were used in the title, abstract, and keywords to undertake the search for articles. These keywords were used in the Google-scholar search engine and Scopus. Searches were performed for LIB recycling, then for the circular economy, and finally for the Sustainable Development Goals; all the articles were then analyzed for relevancy. Secondly, this process was repeated for the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 to make sure articles and reports were as recent as possible. A total of 357 articles were searched for and collected, and after a meticulous assessment of each, 164 were chosen to be analyzed and discussed in this review. To accurately investigate LIB recycling, recycling processes, the circular economy, and the Sustainable Development Goals, this is a valid number of articles, papers, and reports to examine. Table 2 below summarizes the research methodology and presents the remainder of this work where every row of the table denotes a future section of the manuscript. For example, row three or Section 3 relates to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Section 4 is about the Life Cycle Assessment, Section 5 covers recycling processes, Section 6 addresses the circular economy, and Section 7 presents environmental benefits, and then, finally, related discussions are reported.
Table 2. Number of Articles in each Section.
Figure 1 below reveals the number of papers reviewed per year from 1990 to 2023.
Figure 1. Number Per Year of Reviewed Publications.

3. Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

In 2000, the Millennium Development Goals were agreed upon by the United Nations to guide global development. These goals were to be achieved by 2015 [16]. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were a collection of 17 topics and a total of 169 targets agreed upon by the United Nation General Assembly [1]. They were the succession of the Millennium Development Goals. While the former ran from 2000 to 2015, the latter focused on the years 2015 to 2030. However, the difference of the SDGs was to push a shift in the global development paradigm towards more economic, social, and environmental sustainability. With five cores (5P) of the people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership, the SDGs have jumpstarted many national actions, and provided many visions for the future. Table 3 summarizes the papers reviewed in this research work.
Table 3. Sustainable Development Goals by Author and Year.
While there have been numerous setbacks from difficult circumstances, ranging from global to national in scale, we noticed a consistent drive for progress. Many countries wish to adopt frameworks and execute plans that touch multiple goals from the SGDs, such as the circular economy and stimulation of the electric vehicle market. The magnitude of progress fluctuates over the years, so the literature on our advancements toward sustainability will increase continuously.

4. Life Cycle Assessment

Ref. [30] claim that using EV batteries in stationary applications would be environmentally beneficial when considering their life cycle. These said batteries still have roughly 80% of the capacity they come with, which makes them good for reuse in applications with a lower energy demand [31]. Table 4 below presents the papers reviewed in this research work. Below that, in Figure 2, we present a Lifecycle assessment for LIBs.
Table 4. Life Cycle Assessment of LIBs by Author and Year.
Figure 2. LIB’s Lifecycle State [42].

5. Recycling Processes

Although recycling techniques are typically utilized in industry, there is still considerable work being done on an experimental and laboratory scales to improve recycling operations, profit, and energy efficiency [43]. Table 5 below lists the worldwide facilities for recycling LIBs as per [35,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57]. The remainder of this section covers the LIB recycling steps and the various recycling processes.
Table 5. Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Facilities Worldwide.

5.1. Recycling Steps

The steps for the industrialized recycling for EV LIBs, as shown in Figure 3, usually consist of collection, sorting, handling, elimination, and distribution, which allow for significant material recovery [58].
Figure 3. LIBs recycling [59].

5.2. Pyrometallurgical Process

Pyrometallurgy is a widely used process to recover various metals (precious metals and base metals) from electronic waste. This process encompasses smelting, incineration, and high-temperature roasting [60]. A single-shaft furnace is employed in the pyrometallurgical process where the batteries are brought apart and placed into the furnace by gradually increasing the temperature from 300–700 °C to 1200–1450 °C. Given this heat, the electrolyte is faded/evaporated, the plastic is pyrolyzed and the other materials are melted down [61,62]. The outcome of this process results in a mix of copper, cobalt, nickel, lithium, iron, and rare earth elements [61,63].
From the pyrometallurgical process, cobalt, copper, and “nickel alloys (metallic phase) or matte (Sulfidic phase)”, aluminum, manganese, lithium “slag (oxidic phase)”, and flying ash, are produced [64,65,66]. Another process, hydrometallurgy, is used to separate these mixed materials and recover the individual metals: cobalt, lithium, manganese, nickel, and graphite [65,66]. Table 6 summarizes the papers reviewed and related to the pyrometallurgical process.
Table 6. Pyrometallurgical Process by Author and Year.

5.3. Special Recycling Process

A mechanochemical recycling process, used for retired LIB cathode materials (C and LiCoO2), and waste polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was examined by [74]. With a combination of grinding and leaching techniques, they found a viable recovery of raw materials, as well as a high potential for an environmental and economic impact. Table 7 presents a summary for the papers reviewed for such special recycling processes.
Table 7. Special Recycling Process by Author and Year.

5.4. Direct Recycling Process

This process comprises physical and chemical steps, with battery separation completed at low energies and temperatures. Thus, ref. [82] determine that this would be more cost effective than leaching due to a lower material requirement. They also note that direct recycling is not widely used across the industry currently, and published processes from recycling companies are scarce [83]. Table 8 summarizes the papers reviewed regarding direct recycling processes.
Table 8. Direct Recycling Process by Author and Year.

5.5. Hydrometallurgical Process

Leaching and purification used in the hydrometallurgical method have been found effective in recovering precious metals from electronic waste [94].
There have been many changes and additions to hydrometallurgical processes and techniques to recycle active materials of cathodes made of different chemistries of LIBs such as Lithium Cobalt Dioxide (LCO), Lithium Manganese Dioxide (LMO), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide, (NMC), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA), and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) [95], to salvage valuable metals, specifically cobalt, nickel, manganese, and lithium [96,97]. Any hydrometallurgical technique involves physical and chemical steps through liquid processing, thus resulting in a high material recovery [98,99,100]. The key benefits of hydrometallurgical processes are the decreased energy requirement under lower temperatures, the significant recovery of lithium in the carbonate form, the leaching of metals for use in new LIBs cathodes, and s efficiency on a variety of battery chemistries [101]. Table 9 presents a summary of the papers reviewed for hydrometallurgical processes.
Table 9. Hydrometallurgical Process by Author and Year.

5.6. Metallurgical and Mechanical Processes

EOL LIBs can also be treated via mechanical techniques. First, they are broken down into incredibly fine pieces and are then categorized by their physical properties. From here, typical outputs are aluminum/copper, non-ferrous metals, and ferrous metals, which can be treated with other metallurgical processes, and a material called black mass, which can be treated through pyrometallurgy or hydrometallurgy. If the latter is performed, organic components must be removed via thermal processes [65,116]. “Employing pyrometallurgical method, cobalt, copper, and nickel alloys (metallic phase) or matte (sulfidic phase), aluminum, manganese, and lithium slag (oxidic phase), and flying ash are produced” [64,65,67]. “These elements can be further processed by hydrometallurgical methods to recuperate the individual metals”. In hydrometallurgy, cobalt, lithium, manganese, nickel, and graphite can be recovered [65,117]. Table 10 summarizes the reviewed papers on metallurgical and mechanical processes.
Table 10. Metallurgical and Mechanical Processes by Author and Year.

6. Circular Economy

According to several authors [115,123,124], the notion of a circular economy was first proposed by [125] and it has been increasing in popularity since the 1970s. [126] The report by Pearce and Turner investigated economic systems, especially their linearity and open-endedness by looking at how natural resources are used in production and consumption as inputs, as well as how they end up as waste as output. Figure 4 shows how a circular economy would connect its processes, namely, material input, design, production, consumption, and recycling. When considering recycling as a product’s end-of-life, it allows us to close the loop by using the materials from the output as new materials for input [127].
Figure 4. The Circular Economy [127].
Ref. [128] published a Canadian report with respect to reverse logistics whose purpose was to find the best places to establish battery dismantling recycling facilities, as well as calculate the economic and environmental impacts of such infrastructure. Their results indicated that the average costs of recycled raw materials are 1.29 CAD per kg of spent battery pack, and carbon intensity is 0.7 kg CO2-eq per kg of spent battery pack. As per the Paris Agreement targets [129], a main driver for their completion is establishing a circular supply chain for electric vehicle batteries. Valuable materials such as cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and aluminum can be recovered via LIB recycling, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Assets Recovery [127].
Table 11 summarizes the research work pertaining to the circular economy.
Table 11. Circular Economy by Author and Year.

7. Environmental Benefits

There are immense costs, energy, and environmental deficits (GHG emissions) to producing items with raw extracted resources. As such, there are equally significant benefits for remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling, as they cut down on all three of the aforementioned metrics [43,149]. All the tasks that occur when a LIB is to be remanufactured, repurposed, or recycled (via reverse logistics) are shown below in Figure 6, a process flow chart.
Figure 6. RL Process Flow of End-of-Life LIB [138].
Table 12 summarizes the papers reviewed that talk about environmental benefits.
Table 12. Environmental Benefits by Author and Year.

8. Discussion

In the industry, two processes are extensively employed: pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy, which when correctly used together are incredibly efficient at recycling materials, particularly black mass, which can reach almost 100%. Specifically, through pyrometallurgy, cobalt, copper, and nickel are retrieved, and through hydrometallurgy, lithium, manganese, and further cobalt and nickel can be retrieved [65,157].
Various studies take into consideration the flow of materials from recyclable batteries and economic value chains across years. In Catalonia, Spain, under strict climate change laws, an increase of twenty-five times the number of batteries in 2030, and an increase of seventy-two times in 2040 are expected. An increase of up to 80% of cobalt, nickel, and copper, and 60% of lithium are projected in potential supply from secondary materials received from EOL batteries. As such, it is highly encouraging to put optimal management strategies in place as soon as possible to keep material recovery as efficient as possible [158]. A study in Brazil by [159], addressed how in 2030, the number of new electric vehicles in the market could exceed 1.8 million, which results in a demand of 8700, 15,000, 46,000, 15,000 and 92,000 tons of lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and graphite, respectively. In addition, the number of EOL batteries would exceed 340,000 but the amount of raw material truly recovered is heavily dependent on the strategy employed to manage the input and output of batteries to/from recycling facilities. Thus, we consider the flow of materials through the phases of an EV battery, and a substance flow analysis done by [160] does so. They first determined that by 2040, 72–78 million electric vehicles would be present in Europe, whereas the number of batteries in their second use would number 3–11 million. In the same year 2040, the recycling waste flow would increase to around three million batteries with the total capacity being 125 GWh. Regarding the future, the authors concluded that the waste stream could substitute 10–300% of the demand for raw materials for electric vehicles.
The recovery of materials present in electric vehicle batteries offers a great benefit for countries wishing to partake in environmental goals. As mentioned earlier in Table 1, goal thirteen of the Sustainable Development Goals (Climate Action) discusses the reduction of emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. We can see that through battery recycling, environmental detriments associated with extracting raw materials and their transportation can be significantly reduced. It is shown in a study analyzing hydrometallurgical processes, a net saving of 1 kg of CO2-eq per kg of EOL battery can be achieved [161]. Furthermore, even if we set a lower bound that says 30% of EOL batteries are to be recycled, a study by [162], showed that in China alone, 4.3 million tons of CO2 emissions can be reduced by 2030. Additional research is still required to select the most efficient pyrometallurgical processes to optimally decrease CO2 emissions [151].
The economic benefits achievable from battery recycling are also incredibly high. A study by [104], considered 500,000 tons of recyclable batteries from 2019, and determined that through correct recycling procedures, 15,000, 35,000, 45,000, 60,000, 75,000, and 90,000 tons of aluminum, phosphorus, copper, cobalt, lithium, and iron could be recovered, respectively.

9. Future Work

We now discuss various areas currently requiring additional study. A Life Cycle Assessment model for EOL batteries can be done with consideration to electric vehicle markets at the local (national) and global scales. Some developing countries have fewer opportunities for recycling management, so optimal route selection has yet to be researched. Battery storage systems constructed from cells from EOL LIBs are a growing concept, and they should be analyzed further to determine maximal economic benefits. Currently, it is not cost-effective for electric vehicle manufacturers to put recycling procedures in place, so an assessment of the level of government subsidies and assistance packages is still necessary. The applications and effects of blockchain technologies on EOL batteries’ waste streams have yet to be discussed. Finally, new business models with consideration to reverse logistics may result in more efficient material returns to manufacturers, so in-depth research can be done.

10. Conclusions

With many countries striving for improvements in environmental policies, the demand for electric vehicles over internal combustion engine vehicles has been increasing. It follows, nonetheless, that the demand for electric vehicle batteries and their raw materials has seen an upwards trend. With many batteries reaching their end-of-life, it is equally imperative for environmental policies to recycle them to recover their valuable materials for reuse. We investigate the current most widely used recycling processes globally, as discussed in Section 8. Furthermore, an analysis of these various recycling processes of current recycling facilities worldwide was conducted, and the total annual recycling amounts for each process were calculated. After studying the various articles in the current literature, we found that there exist significant economic and environmental benefits of recycling batteries as opposed to discarding them at their EOL. Although various literature reviews have been published with respect to battery recycling, our review differs by focusing on the Sustainable Development Goals, specifically, Goal 13: Climate Action.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.N.A. and W.A.-K.; Papers collection, M.N.A.; Methodology, M.N.A. and W.A.-K.; Analysis, M.N.A. and W.A.-K.; Validation, M.N.A. Writing—original draft, M.N.A.; Review and Editing, M.N.A. and W.A.-K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), Canada. Grant number: RGPIN-2020-05499.

Data Availability Statement

All the data used in this research work are incorporated in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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