Lithium-Ion Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles: Constraints, Challenges, and Recommendations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Survey Methods
3. Battery
4. Battery Management System
4.1. Current and Voltage Monitoring in the Li-Ion Battery Cell
4.2. Estimation and Protection of LIB Charge/Discharge Control
4.3. Cell Equalization
4.3.1. Passive Cell Balancing
4.3.2. Active Cell Balancing
- Cell balancing based on capacitor: Capacitors aid in achieving cell balance by shifting energy between nearby cells. The primary disadvantages are energy loss during capacitor charging and delayed balancing. Switched capacitors are used in single-tiered, double-tiered, and multiple capacitors [4,58].
- Cell balancing based on a transformer or inductor: Transformers or inductors are used to achieve cell equilibrium through the energy transferred from a cell module to another cell module or from cell to cell, where it can achieve cell equilibrium very quickly. However, the disadvantage of this method is the need to include filter capacitors across each cell due to the high cost and frequency of the transformer. The approach variations include a single-winding transformer, multi, multiple winding, and a single/multi-inductor [59,60].
- Cell balancing based on a converter: Convertor-based cell balancing has recently gained popularity owing to its unique ability to regulate the whole balancing process. But high cost and complexity remain essential issues. A standard/modified DC–DC converter, such as a buck, boost, or buck–boost converter, flyback converter, resonant converter, full-bridge and cuk converter, or a PWM converter, is used for balancing [61,62].
- Comparative Analysis: The balancing speed, charge/discharge capabilities, and primary components needed for balancing and cell application are compared. Table 1 compares them. As little resistance is used for successive mode operation, passive cell balancing is appropriate for applications that consume limited power. Furthermore, passive cell balancing is cheap. Nevertheless, active cell balancing saves more energy and can manage more power than passive cell balancing. If appropriately used, full-bridge converters may solve two primary obstacles that BESSs face (DC/AC power and cell balancing system). Another advantage is its fast balancing speed. During charging/discharging, the cell with lower/higher energy precedes the cell with higher/lower energy. More details of active and passive charge balancing circuits are discussed in [63].
4.4. Temperature, Power, and Heat Management
4.5. Data Storage and Acquisition: Communication and Networking
4.6. Fault Assessment and Diagnosis
5. Issues and Challenges
5.1. Real-Time SOC and SOH Estimation
5.2. Optimal Charging Problem and Characterization
5.3. Battery Models
5.4. Data Abundance, Variety, and Integrity Issues
5.5. Parameter Selection and Optimization for Intelligent Algorithms
5.6. Thermal Management and Thermal Runaway
5.7. RUL Prediction Issues
5.8. Battery Charger and Discharging Issue
5.9. Cells Degradation and Early Discharge Termination
5.10. Safe and Efficient Operation
5.11. Aging and Memory Effect
5.12. Hysteresis Characteristics with Existing BMS
5.13. Self-Evaluation with Capacity and Power Fading
5.14. Capacity Estimation and Modeling
5.15. Safety and Potential Risks
5.16. Battery Recycling and Reuse
5.17. Chargers Communication
5.18. Self-Discharge and Charging/Discharging Rate
5.19. Power Source and Consumption
5.20. Battery Disposal Issues
5.21. Miscellaneous Issues
6. Recommendations
6.1. Enhancing Safety and Reliability
6.2. Algorithm Hybridization and Advanced Prognostic
6.3. Advanced Thermal Management
6.4. Life Cycle Assessment and Aging Effect
6.5. Enhancing LIBs Capacity and Fast Charging
6.6. Reuse and Recycling
6.7. Wireless and Universal BMS
6.8. Structure and Virtualization
6.9. Integration with Big Data
6.10. Installations Recommendations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Balancing Techniques, Methods, and Types | No. of Elements for Balancing (n Cells) | Balancing Time, Control Complicity | Power Loss, Efficiency | Voltage and Current Stress | Size and Cost | Benefits | Drawbacks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed Shunt, Passive and Fixed | n resistors | Slow, Very Simple | Very High, Poor | Zero/Zero | Very Small, Very Cheap | Very simple control system, very small size and cheap | Long balance time, high power loss, require thermal management, poor efficiency |
Switch Shunt, Passive and Only Charging | n switches, n resistors | Slow, Simple | Very High, Low | High/High | Very Small, Very Cheap | Simple control system, vary cheap and small in size, suitable to apply in HEV but face some limitations for applying in EV | Long balance time, high power loss, require thermal management, poor efficiency |
Analog Shunt, Passive, and Only Charging | n switches, n Op-amps, 3n resistors, n capacitors | Slow, Simple | High, Low | High/High | Very Small, Cheap | Simple control system, very small and cheap | High power loss, require thermal management, poor efficiency |
Single-Switch Capacitor, Active and Charge/ Discharge | n + 5 switches, 1 capacitor | Medium, Complex | Minor, Better | Low/Low | Small, Medium | Bidirectional, simple control, good efficiency, suitable for application in HEV and EV | Control system is complex, and minor power loss |
Switch Capacitor, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n switches, n − 1 capacitor | Medium, Medium | Minor, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, simple control, low current and voltage stress | Many switches needed, medium equalization speed |
Double-Tiered Switch capacitor, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n switches, 2n − 3 capacitor | Medium, Complex | Minor, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, good efficiency, fast balancing compared with switch capacitor | Many switches needed, medium equalization speed |
Modularized Switch Capacitor, Active and Charge/Discharge | M(n + 2) switches, M(n − 1) capacitor | Medium, Complex | Minor, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, low current and voltage stress, applied in high power application | Requires many switches, complex control system, large size and costly |
Single Inductor, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n − 2 switches, 1 inductor, 2n − 2 diodes | High, Complex | Low, High | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, low power loss, current and voltage stress is low | Requires many switches and diodes, complex control |
Multi Inductor, Active, and Charge/Discharge | n + 1 switches, n − 1 inductors | High, Complex | Low, High | Low/Low | Large, Medium | Bidirectional, low power loss, current and voltage stress is low, fast balancing compared with a single inductor and switch capacitor | Requires many switches and current filter capacitor, complex control |
Single Winding Transformer, Active and Charge/Discharge | n + 6 switches, 1 diode, 2 indicators, 1 transformer | Medium, Complex | Low, Better | Medium/Medium | Large, Costly | Bidirectional, medium balancing speed, low magnetizing loss | Requires many switches and components for balancing and complex control system |
Multi-winding Transformer, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2 switches, n diode, 1 winding transformer, n + 1 inductors | Medium, Complex | Low, Better | Medium/Low | Large, Costly | Bidirectional, medium balancing speed, suitable for use in HEV and EV application | Many switches and components are required for balancing and a sophisticated control system, as well as a high magnetic loss and a high dimension. |
Modularized Winding Transformer, Active and Charge/Discharge | M(n + 2) switches, Mn diodes, M(n + 2) indicators, M − 1 transformers | Medium, Complex | Very Low, Better | Low/Low | Large, Costly | Suitable for application in high-power ES systems and used in HEV and EV | Several switches and components are required for balance, and a complicated control system, large size and costly |
Fly-Back Converter, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n switches, 2n inductors, n winding transformers | Medium, Medium | Low, Good | Low/Low | Large, Costly | Bidirectional, medium balancing speed, low power loss, current, and voltage stress | Several switches and components are required for balance, and a complicated control system, large size and costly |
Boost Converter, Active, and Charge/Discharge | n + 1 switches, 1 diode, n + 1 indicators 1 capacitor | High, Complex | Minor, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, high balancing speed, low current and voltage stress, minor power loss | Requires intelligent and appropriate voltage sensing, complex control system, costly |
Buck–Boost Converter, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n − 2 switches, n − 1 inductors | Vary High, Complex | Minor, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, very high balancing speed, low current and voltage stress, minor power loss | Requires intelligent and appropriate voltage sensing, complex control system |
Ramp Converter, Active and Charge/Discharge | n switches, n diodes, n/2 inductors, n capacitors | Medium, Complex | Low, Good | Medium/Medium | Large, Costly | Bidirectional, less power loss, soft switching, good efficient | Several switches and components are required for balance, and a complicated control system, costly |
Cuk Converter, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n − 2 switches, 2n − 2 inductors, N − 1 capacitors | High, Complex | Low, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Medium | Bidirectional, high balancing efficiency, low current and voltage stress, suitable for HEV and EV | Several switches and components are required for balance, and a complicated control system, large size and costly |
Resonant Converter, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n − 2 switches, n − 1 indicators, n − 1 capacitors | High, Complex | Very Low, Better | Low/Low | Medium, Costly | Bidirectional, high balancing efficiency, less power loss, low current and voltage stress, suitable for HEV and EV | Requires intelligent and appropriate voltage sensing, complex control system |
Full-Bridge Converter, Active and Charge/Discharge | 2n + 2 switches, 2 capacitors | Medium, Complex | Low, Better | High/High | Large, Costly | Bidirectional, high balancing efficiency, power loss is negligible | Complex control system, costly |
PWM Controller, Active and Charge/Discharge | n switches, 2 resistors 2 diodes, n − 1 inductors | Medium, Complex | Low, Better | High/High | Large, Costly | Bidirectional, medium balancing efficiency, | Several switches and components are required for balance, and a complicated control system, high current and voltage stress |
Complete Shunting Balancing, Active and Charge | 2n switches, n diodes | Medium, Medium | Minor, Good | Low/Low | Small, Cheap | Medium balancing efficiency, small size, and cheap | Work only in charging mode |
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Habib, A.K.M.A.; Hasan, M.K.; Issa, G.F.; Singh, D.; Islam, S.; Ghazal, T.M. Lithium-Ion Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles: Constraints, Challenges, and Recommendations. Batteries 2023, 9, 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9030152
Habib AKMA, Hasan MK, Issa GF, Singh D, Islam S, Ghazal TM. Lithium-Ion Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles: Constraints, Challenges, and Recommendations. Batteries. 2023; 9(3):152. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9030152
Chicago/Turabian StyleHabib, A. K. M. Ahasan, Mohammad Kamrul Hasan, Ghassan F. Issa, Dalbir Singh, Shahnewaz Islam, and Taher M. Ghazal. 2023. "Lithium-Ion Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles: Constraints, Challenges, and Recommendations" Batteries 9, no. 3: 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9030152