Secondary Zinc–Air Batteries: A View on Rechargeability Aspects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Anode Optimization as a Key to Zinc Utilization
2.1. Zinc Electrode-Structural and Surface Optimization
2.1.1. Structural Modification
2.1.2. Surface Modification
2.2. Electrolyte Optimization in Zinc–Air Secondary Cells
2.2.1. Aqueous Neutral Electrolytes
2.2.2. Solid State Electrolytes (SSEs)
2.2.3. Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
2.2.4. Wide Working Temperature
2.3. Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) in Secondary Zinc Air Batteries
2.4. Cell Design for Secondary Zinc–Air Batteries
3. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
- Future theoretical investigations could be helpful to provide a framework for comprehension and interpretation of experimental outcome from modified zinc anode, additives and different electrolytes. Implementing simulation results in configuration processes will help researchers crafting rechargeable zinc–air batteries with maximum zinc utilization. Implementation of advance in situ/operando techniques to interpret passivation and corrosion mechanism of the zinc anode under different electrolytes will help to choose best configuration with maximum zinc utilization. Future research investigation requires to focus on multiple anode problems at one time. Along experimental investigations the aim should be to consider the detrimental processes including zinc anode passivation, HER and dendritic growth altogether in the charging/discharging of the batteries. These three issues of zinc anode are correlated to each other in real applications.
- Electrolytes portray a significant part in rechargeable zinc–air batteries and are responsible for ionic conductivity between the electrodes. In order to improve anode reversibility, researchers have supplemented traditional alkaline electrolytes with additives and polymer gel electrolytes. However, alkaline electrolytes are susceptible to atmospheric CO2, leading to carbonate production and cell degradation. Thus, we strongly encourage more research contributions on new electrolyte systems. For instance, quasi-neutral electrolytes could completely evade the alkaline-based parasitic side reactions restricting the long-term rechargeability in zinc–air batteries. The research on quasi-neutral electrolytes is still growing slowly with only few available publications, and their specific utilization in zinc–air batteries with detailed studies is still scarce. For further advancement, it is significant to develop a thorough understanding of the anode reversibility mechanism and oxygen redox chemistries in the quasi-neutral electrolytes. The quasi-neutral electrolytes with additives such as negatively charged organic moieties facilitate solid electrostatic interaction at the electrolyte anode interface and promote SEI formation, positively affecting anode utilization and rechargeability in zinc–air batteries. Thus, robust SEI formation should be in the criteria before designing an electrolyte system for the zinc–air batteries. Flexible solid-state zinc–air batteries have appeared as another encouraging prospect in the energy field due to parallel growth in interest in portable and wearable electronic appliances. However, the practical application of flexible zinc–air batteries is inhibited due to their poor electrochemical performance and short lifespan. To deal with those issues, the core of flexible zinc–air batteries development lies in designing SSEs with flexibility, mechanical robustness, high ion conductivity, and good water retention.
- The importance of SEI formation and its functionality in the betterment of battery performance is established for lithium-ion batteries. Because of its high redox potential, zinc is stable in both aqueous and organic electrolytes. In aqueous alkaline electrolytes, products are ionically non-conducting, which means the spontaneous generation of the SEI in zinc metal batteries is insignificant compared to the lithium-ion case. There are countable reports of SEI formation in zinc–air batteries due to additive addition in electrolytes of zinc anode structural variation. Patterning of anode surface along with addition of organic additives could lead to electrostatic interaction and development of robust and uniform SEI. Creation of robust and uniform SEI across zinc anode will lead‚ to uniform zinc stripping/plating, which leads to enhance reversibility of zinc anode ultimately enhancing rechargeability and cycle life of the batteries. However, an in-depth study of SEI in the zinc–air battery is still scarce, and composition of the SEI, their structure on the zinc anode and its effect on stripping/platting efficiency must be still an active research area.
- Descriptor and cell design. To analyze the performance of zinc–air batteries, essential descriptors and metrics should be included in research reports. Discussing these significant descriptors in future research studies would assist in evaluating the practical relevancy of zinc anodes for zinc–air battery applications and permit credible cross-comparison of different research investigations. This is significant for the speedy transport of zinc–air battery technical knowledge from mostly lab-based research towards practical applications. The anode issues arising from battery configuration design or other physical components must be addressed. Currently only a few studies take account of experimental conditions and design of battery configurations. Only a minority of research reports consider the design of battery configurations with the optimization of anodes or electrolytes to get close to commercial batteries. We suggest employing coin cell-type designs because of their near-to-commercial configuration. Standard cell designs and experimental conditions enable easy comparison and interpretation of results.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Anode Optimization | Anode Materials | Discharge Capacity/Areal Capacity | DoD/ZU | Cycling Stability | Coulombic Efficiency |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Structural optimization | 3D Zinc sponge anode [29] | 164 mAh/g | 23% | 45 cycles/(24 mA/cm2) | - |
Structural optimization | 3D ZnO/C [17] | 267 mAh/g | 32% | 60 cycles (0.55 mA/cm2) | 83% |
Structural optimization | Ag-modified Cu foam/zinc [26] | - | 20% | 80 cycles (25 mA/cm2) | 94% |
Structural optimization | Nanoporous zinc [30] | 400 mAh/cm2 | 10% | 80 h (10 mA/cm2) | |
Structural optimization | Zn3Mn alloy [31] | - | 6000 min (30 mA/cm2) | ||
Structural optimization | ZnSn10 [32] | 200 h (0.5 mA/cm2) | |||
Structural optimization | Textured zinc anode [38] | 6 mAh/cm2 | 20% | 250 h (0.1 mA/cm2) | |
Surface optimization | ZnO@TiO2 [44] | - 616 mAh/g | 40% 100% | 170 cycles 33 cycles | 93.09% 93.5% |
Surface optimization | ZnO/C [46] | 2.55 mA/cm2 | 100% | 42 cycles (2.55 mA/cm2) | >95% |
Surface optimization | Bi2O3–ZnO–CaO/Zn [48] | 767 mAh/g | 62%/ZU | 20 cycles | |
Surface optimization | ZnO/PVA/β-CD/PEG [51] | - | 80 cycles (25 mA/cm2) | ||
Surface optimization | PANI/Zinc-phthalocyanine [50] | 120 h (10 mA/cm2) | |||
Surface optimization | ZnO/C with FAA3 coating [53] | 351 mA/g | 53.6% | 13 cycles | 71.1 |
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Yadav, S.K.; Deckenbach, D.; Schneider, J.J. Secondary Zinc–Air Batteries: A View on Rechargeability Aspects. Batteries 2022, 8, 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110244
Yadav SK, Deckenbach D, Schneider JJ. Secondary Zinc–Air Batteries: A View on Rechargeability Aspects. Batteries. 2022; 8(11):244. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110244
Chicago/Turabian StyleYadav, Sudheer Kumar, Daniel Deckenbach, and Jörg J. Schneider. 2022. "Secondary Zinc–Air Batteries: A View on Rechargeability Aspects" Batteries 8, no. 11: 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110244