1. Introduction
Saffron (
Crocus sativus L.) is a highly priced spice infertile perennial plant belonging to the family Iridaceae [
1]. The dormancy of saffron can extend from May to late summer (i.e., June, July, and August), and the plant flowers in autumn [
2]. Saffron is classified as a monocotyledonous herbaceous triploid plant and is cultivated for its stigma (called threads), with 90–93% of global production occurring in Iran [
2,
3,
4,
5]. The stigmas are collected and dried, after which they are used mainly as coloring and seasoning agents in foods but also in many industries (e.g., in dyes, textiles, drugs, culinary adjuncts, and flavorings) and for their pharmacological properties, including anticancer, antioxidant, antitumor, and antimutagenic activities [
6,
7]. The production of 0.5 g of dry stigma reportedly requires 75–100 saffron flowers, which provide about 225–300 stigma threads. Thus, saffron is considered the most expensive spice in the world, with 1 kg costing EUR 1500–2200 [
4,
7]. Saffron is cultivated in only a few places worldwide, which are ordered in terms of their saffron cultivation area as follows (in hectares): Iran (108,000), Afghanistan (7557), India (3674), Greece (1000), Morocco (850), Spain (150), Italy (70), and France (37) [
3]. The bioactive ingredients in saffron spice that provide its phytochemical, pharmaceutical, or therapeutic attributes include crocins, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which also provide the color, bitterness, and aromatic properties of the spice [
4,
5,
7,
8,
9]. Saffron has also been reported to ameliorate complications related to diabetes mellitus [
10,
11].
Growing substrates affect plant growth and development through their physical and chemical properties [
12,
13]. Such substrates must have low physical strength and high porosity [
14], the latter of which is essential for ensuring that air, water, and nutrients reach the roots. However, a growing substrate’s most important quality is how it adsorbs, retains, and releases water [
15]. A high water retention capacity leads to insufficient aeration of the roots, which can be suffocated [
16]. Chemical properties, including pH, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrient availability, also affect plant growth [
17]. A growing substrate with a high cation exchange capacity is more favorable, as essential nutrients can be contained in the substrate (adsorbed to the particles) [
18]. In a substrate mixture, peatmoss provides good aeration and a moderate-to-high water retention capacity [
19]. Therefore, because of its chemical and physical properties [
20,
21], peatmoss is the substrate component used most in greenhouse mixes to balance water and aeration in the substrate.
The saffron cultivation is limited in farmland located at high altitudes under cold climate conditions [
22,
23,
24]. The high demand and low supply have made saffron the most expensive spice in the world [
25,
26]. Introducing saffron cultivation to different regions with a moderate climate could possibly increase the saffron supply. Successful saffron cultivation and growth depend on many factors, including climatic factors (mainly temperature and humidity), cultural practices (e.g., the control of weeds, pests, and diseases; irrigation; and sowing date), and soil properties (e.g., pH, salinity, texture, and soil organic matter) [
27,
28,
29,
30]. These factors affect the quantity and quality of the saffron yield as well as its growth. The optimum soil pH is considered 6.8–7.8, the EC should be <2 dS m
−1 [
13,
31,
32], and the ideal seasonal rainfall is 600 mm [
33]. The preferred soil for saffron cultivation is well-irrigated, loose, friable, low-density, and well-drained clay soil [
29]. Additionally, the soil properties could influence the vegetative growth and saffron yield, thus impacting the economic production of saffron. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the flowering yield, vegetative growth performance, and daughter corm yield responses of saffron to varied growing media, i.e., peatmoss, silty, sandy, and loamy soils.
4. Discussion
The soils used as growing media in this study differed in terms of their pH and salinity (EC) values. Sandy soil had the highest pH value (9.25), whereas the peatmoss + foam medium had the lowest pH (4.00). The pH of sandy soil media was reduced from 9.25 to 7.10, whereas the opposite trend was observed for the peatmoss + foam medium, in which the pH was increased from 4.00 to 5.70 (
Table 2). The cultivation of saffron plants led to a decrease in the salinity of most growing substrates after harvesting (e.g., sandy soil from 0.143 to 0.11 dS m
−1), whereas the peatmoss media showed an increase in EC values after harvesting (e.g., peatmoss + sand medium from 0.242 to 0.560 dS m
−1). The highest growth parameter values were recorded in plants grown in peatmoss alone and its mixtures with sand or foam, especially peatmoss + foam, followed by peatmoss + sandy soil. Conversely, plants grown in heavy loamy soil showed stunted growth. These results indicate that the growth and production of saffron depend mainly on soil texture and soil pH, with the best growth and production observed in soil with a lighter texture and a near-neutral soil pH (i.e., around pH 7). These results are consistent with the previous findings [
29,
43]. Shajari et al. [
43] found that, compared with a heavy soil texture, a light soil texture increased the saffron flower yield by 15%. Saffron can tolerate a wide range of pedologic and forcing conditions [
44]. The growing substrate/soil pH levels and salinity were reduced as a result of saffron cultivation, indicating that the saffron crop could probably act as a soil conditioner (
Table 2).
The current study supports the notion that soil texture is the soil character that controls the growth and production of key saffron attributes (e.g., stigmas and cormlets). Soil with a light texture is favorable for saffron production because it provides sufficient soil aeration that enables strong root growth. When the soil has a heavy texture, e.g., loamy soil, root growth is limited (
Figure 4;
Table 3 and
Table 4), as demonstrated by the low-quality parameter values (i.e., intensive rooting, root length, production of desirable cormlets, diameter of cormlets, and dry weight of stigma) of saffron grown in loamy soil. Indeed, compared with plants grown in the peatmoss + foam medium, the desirable production of cormlets and their diameter decreased by 56.6% and 21.5%, respectively, in plants grown in loamy soil. Other soil characters that influence the success of saffron production include the soil pH, a low bulk density, the soil salinity, a well-developed friable structure, the organic matter content, the well-drained soil, and the soil fertility [
45].
During the cultivation of saffron, it is not usually necessary to add high levels of fertilizer and water [
38]; thus, it is possible to cultivate saffron under arid/semi-arid conditions and in new reclaimed soils. Under the conditions of low soil organic matter (0.4%), low rainfall (206 mm), neutral soil pH (7.34), low soil salinity (1.18 dS m
−1), and light soil texture (55% sand), integrated nutrient management (including chemical, organic, and biological fertilizers) can improve some soil properties (e.g., soil cation exchange capacity, soil bulk density, and nutrient content) and saffron biomass production [
46]. In addition, saffron production can be managed under conditions in which the soil (5.64 dS m
−1) and irrigation water (2.9–5.8 dS m
−1) are saline by selecting the proper planting date [
47].
The present results suggest that a peatmoss and foam medium is suitable for saffron production because many saffron yield parameters were high in this soil substrate, with the increases relative to loamy soil recorded as follows: number of leaves per plant (21.4%), diameter of cormlets (21.5%), desirable size cormlets (56.7%), fresh stigmata weight per plant (19.6%), and photosynthetic pigment content (37.5%). Additionally, the activities of CAT and POD were higher in saffron grown in loamy soil, indicating that these plants suffered from oxidative stress in this soil substrate. Thus, mixing peatmoss with a lighter soil, such as a sandy soil or foam, gives a superior reference growing medium for the production of saffron. Given that new reclaimed or desert soils have a sandy texture, the present results suggest that saffron could be cultivated in such soils, even if the soil acidity is high (up to pH 9.25). Moreover, this study indicates that loamy soil, which has a heavy texture, a high bulk density, a badly developed friable structure, and potentially poor drainage and may be polluted [
48], is not suitable for saffron production. Overall, forming a mixture of light soil and peatmoss is considered acceptable for producing saffron, although an economic evaluation of this agroprocess is still required.