Water Use Efficiency in Urban Food Gardens: Insights from a Systematic Review and Case Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- How efficiently does existing UA use the resources it requires?
- What is the productivity of existing urban food gardens?
- Does growing food in urban areas save people money?
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
Study Selection
4. Discussion of the Systematic Review
4.1. Existing WUE in UA Research
4.2. Theoretical Modelling of UA
4.3. Technological Advances in Automatic Irrigation Systems
4.4. The Need for Further Research
5. Case Study: Measuring the WUE of UA in South Australia
5.1. Water Use in South Australia
5.1.1. Reticulated Mains Water
5.1.2. Rainwater
5.1.3. Recycled Water: Wastewater, Greywater and Stormwater
5.1.4. Groundwater
5.1.5. Desalinated Water
5.2. Calculating the WUE of UA
- Overall water use, W, including the relative contributions by rainfall and irrigation, and—if possible—an estimate of change in soil moisture conditions; and
- Yield, Yk, per crop category.
Demonstrating the WUE of UA Equations
5.3. Measuring the WUE of UA
5.3.1. Measuring UA Yield
5.3.2. Measuring Applied Irrigation
5.4. The Edible Gardens Project
- (1)
- An online survey collected via SurveyMonkey, which included a combination of both quantitative and qualitative questions, multiple choice and Likert-style scaled questions. From September 2016 to January 2018 401 people responded to the survey. The respondents were asked about their food gardening, including their motivations, experiences, learning sources, challenges, a description of their food garden, estimated setup and monthly costs, estimated weekly time spent, any food preservation or distribution, and what they valued most about growing food. The two survey questions pertinent to this paper were, “From where is the water used on your food-producing areas sourced? (Please select all that apply)” and “How do you usually apply that water? (Please select all that apply)”.
- (2)
- Garden data collection: selected participants collected data on their own food producing gardens. They measured and recorded input and yield data for each of their food garden areas: water (source, irrigation method, volume and time), time spent on food gardening-related activities, all costs and their yields (crop type and weight).
5.4.1. Challenges
5.4.2. Water Meters
5.4.3. Project Expectations
5.5. The Utility of UA
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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UA Type | |||
Home garden | Algert et al., 2016; Cleveland, Orum, and Ferguson 1985; Codyre, Fraser, and Landman 2014; Conk 2015; Lupia and Pulighe 2015; Pollard, Ward, and Roetman 2018; Stall 1979; Stephens, Carter, and Van Gundy 1980; Sullivan et al., 2015; Utzinger and Connolly 1978; Zainuddin and Mercer 2014 [24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] | (10) | |
Community-style garden | Algert, Baameur, and Renvall 2014; Drake and Lawson 2015; Gittleman, Jordan, and Brelsford 2012; McGoodwin, McGoodwin, and McGoodwin 2016; Pourias, Duchemin, and Aubry 2015; Vitiello et al., 2010; Vitiello, Nairn, and Planning 2009; Vogl et al., 2004 [21,22,23,35,36,37,38,39] | (8) | |
Technical assessment | Orsini et al., 2014; Richards et al., 2015; Sanjuan-Delmás et al., 2017; Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2015 [40,41,42,43] | (4) | |
Review, discussion or survey paper | Brown 2016; Langellotto 2014; Mok et al., 2014; Pollard, Roetman, and Ward 2017; Pollard, Ward, and Roetman 2018; Specht et al., 2014; Taylor and Lovell 2013; Wortman and Lovell 2013 [13,14,16,17,31,44,45,46] | (8) | |
Type of Publication | |||
Peer viewed, scientific publication | Algert, Baameur, and Renvall 2014; Algert et al., 2016; Cleveland, Orum, and Ferguson 1985; Codyre, Fraser, and Landman 2014; Conk 2015; Drake and Lawson 2015; Gittleman, Jordan, and Brelsford 2012; Langellotto 2014; Lupia and Pulighe 2015; Mok et al., 2014; Orsini et al., 2014; Pollard, Roetman, and Ward 2017; Pollard, Ward, and Roetman 2018; Pourias, Duchemin, and Aubry 2015; Richards et al., 2015; Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2015; Specht et al., 2014; Stall 1979; Stephens, Carter, and Van Gundy 1980; Sullivan et al., 2015; Taylor and Lovell 2013; Utzinger and Connolly 1978; Vogl et al., 2004; Wise 2014; Wortman and Lovell 2013; Zainuddin and Mercer 2014 [13,14,16,21,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,38,39,40,41,43,44,45,46,47] | (26) | |
Book chapter | Brown 2016; McGoodwin, McGoodwin, and McGoodwin 2016 [17,37] | (2) | |
Grey literature | Vitiello et al., 2010; Vitiello, Nairn, and Planning 2009 [22,23] | (2) | |
Level of Water Data Consideration | |||
HIGH | Collected empirical water data/WUE data | Algert et al., 2016; Cleveland, Orum, and Ferguson 1985; Richards et al., 2015; Sanjuan-Delmás et al., 2017; Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2015 [26,27,41,42,43] | (5) |
MED | Used existing water use data | Lupia and Pulighe 2015 [30] | (1) |
MED | Measured cost of water only | McGoodwin, McGoodwin, and McGoodwin 2016; Stephens, Carter, and Van Gundy 1980; Utzinger and Connolly 1978 [25,33,37] | (3) |
LOW | Measured other costs and/or inputs but no water data collected | Algert, Baameur, and Renvall 2014; Codyre, Fraser, and Landman 2014; Gittleman, Jordan, and Brelsford 2012; Stall 1979; Sullivan et al., 2015; Vogl et al., 2004 [21,24,28,32,35,39] | (6) |
LOW | Did not consider costs or inputs and no water data collected | Conk 2015; Orsini et al., 2014; Pourias, Duchemin, and Aubry 2015; Vitiello et al., 2010; Vitiello, Nairn, and Planning 2009; Zainuddin and Mercer 2014 [22,23,29,34,38,40] | (6) |
N/A | Review, discussion or survey paper | Drake and Lawson 2015; Langellotto 2014; Mok et al., 2014; Pollard, Roetman, and Ward 2017; Pollard, Ward, and Roetman 2018; Specht et al., 2014; Taylor and Lovell 2013; Wortman and Lovell 2013 [13,14,16,31,36,44,45,46] | (8) |
Measurements and Equations | Garden A | Garden B | |
---|---|---|---|
Area under production (A) | 77.4 m2 | 58.3 m2 | |
Duration of study (T) | 3 years (36 months) | 2.5 years (30 months) | |
Water use (kL) | Rain | 66.2 | 41.5 |
Irrigation | 42.2 | 45.2 | |
Total, W (kL) | 108.4 | 86.7 | |
Total values | Total yield, Y (kg) | 96.2 | 134.4 |
Total energy, YkNk (kJ) | 9,722 | 10,203 | |
Total retail value, FkNk ($) | 154.14 | 178.32 | |
WUEgross (kg/kL) | 0.88 | 1.55 | |
WUEnut (kJ/kL) | 112 | 271 | |
WUEfin ($/kL) | 1.42 | 2.06 |
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Pollard, G.; Ward, J.; Roetman, P. Water Use Efficiency in Urban Food Gardens: Insights from a Systematic Review and Case Study. Horticulturae 2018, 4, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae4030027
Pollard G, Ward J, Roetman P. Water Use Efficiency in Urban Food Gardens: Insights from a Systematic Review and Case Study. Horticulturae. 2018; 4(3):27. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae4030027
Chicago/Turabian StylePollard, Georgia, James Ward, and Philip Roetman. 2018. "Water Use Efficiency in Urban Food Gardens: Insights from a Systematic Review and Case Study" Horticulturae 4, no. 3: 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae4030027