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Article

Exogenous Calcium on Calcium Accumulation, Uptake and Utilization in Tomato

by
Chunyan Wu
†,
Nan Xia
† and
Wei Wang
*
College of Horticulture, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(8), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080986
Submission received: 4 July 2025 / Revised: 25 July 2025 / Accepted: 17 August 2025 / Published: 19 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Vegetable Production Systems)
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Abstract

Calcium (Ca) is an essential nutrient element crucial for plant growth and development, especially in tomatoes. This study investigated the effects of foliar spraying with different concentrations (3 g·L−1, 6 g·L−1, 9 g·L−1) of calcium chloride (CaCl2) on growth, calcium uptake, distribution, fruit yield, and quality of tomato plants. The results showed that foliar application of calcium fertilizer significantly increased dry matter accumulation, fruit quality, and yield. Calcium application promoted calcium uptake by tomato plants, significantly increased the distribution proportion of calcium in roots and fruits, and significantly decreased the distribution proportion in stems and leaves. The overall calcium distribution proportion within the plant was leaf > stem > root > fruit. In conclusion, foliar spraying with 3–6 g·L−1 CaCl2 can significantly improve tomato yield and quality by regulating calcium distribution and enhancing dry matter accumulation, providing a theoretical basis for the efficient application of calcium fertilizer in protected tomato cultivation.
Keywords:
tomato; calcium; yield; quality

1. Introduction

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an annual or perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Solanaceae family. Its fruits are rich in carotene, vitamin C (VC), and B vitamins, and it is widely cultivated in both northern and southern China [1].
Calcium (Ca) is an essential nutrient element crucial for plant growth and development, performing critical functions in diverse physiological processes. Functioning not only as a structural component of cell walls but also as an intracellular second messenger, it regulates key metabolic processes including cell division, apoptosis, polarity establishment, differentiation, and senescence10 [2,3]. As a typical calcium-loving vegetable, tomato is highly sensitive to calcium nutritional status. Calcium deficiency can induce various physiological disorders, such as blossom-end rot, necrosis of growing points, and abnormal floral organ development [4,5], significantly inhibiting plant growth and ultimately leading to reduced yield and quality [6,7]. Therefore, calcium is one of the most extensively studied essential mineral elements in tomato.
Studies have shown that Ca2+, as an effective ameliorant, can significantly promote the growth of tomato plants under salt stress, increasing fresh weight, dry weight, relative water content, and leaf area of roots and shoots [7]. During early fruit development, calcium supports cell division and basic metabolic activities; later, calcium ions (Ca2+) bind with pectic acid in cell walls to form calcium pectate, which acts as a structural skeleton enhancing cell wall strength, maintaining intercellular adhesion, delaying fruit softening, and contributing to the accumulation of sugars, acids, and other flavor compounds, thereby improving fruit quality [8]. Calcium acts directly on fruiting inflorescences, participating in activation processes, hormone and enzyme regulation, and is crucial for cell division (especially in root and shoot tips) [8,9]. Calcium is a key determinant of tomato fruit quality. Adequate calcium supply increases fruit firmness and effectively prevents production losses due to blossom-end rot. By promoting growth, ensuring fruit set, and mitigating disorders, the rational application of calcium fertilizer can effectively increase overall tomato yield.
However, calcium has poor mobility within plants. It is primarily absorbed by roots and transported via the xylem stream driven by transpiration, thus being preferentially allocated to older leaf tissues with high transpiration rates [8,9]. Calcium has very low redistribution capacity in the phloem, meaning that organs with low transpiration rates, such as fruits, young leaves, and growing points, may experience calcium deficiency even when rhizospheric calcium supply is sufficient. Particularly for fruits, their calcium supply relies mainly on xylem transport, with only a small amount of calcium reaching this organ [10]. Therefore, improving the transport efficiency of Ca2+ in the xylem is crucial for ensuring adequate calcium supply to fruits, which may simultaneously optimize the ability of the phloem to transport sugars and organic acids to the fruit.
Due to the limitations of calcium mobility within plants, foliar spraying has become a primary and efficient method for calcium supplementation. Compared to root fertilization, foliar-applied calcium can directly enter cells through leaf stomata or epidermis, rapidly participating in metabolic activities. It offers significant advantages such as rapid effectiveness, high nutrient utilization efficiency, low application rate, and strong targeting. Through foliar fertilization, the calcium demand of plants during critical growth stages (especially fruit development) can be met promptly, effectively improving plant nutritional status, preventing deficiency symptoms, regulating growth, and ultimately enhancing fruit quality and yield [11].
Furthermore, exogenous calcium treatment has also been proven to effectively extend the postharvest storage life of tomato fruits [12]. Fruits treated with CaCl2 exhibited lower decay rates after mechanical damage, slower decline in vitamin C content during storage, reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, and enhanced activities of peroxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO). These findings further confirm the important role of Ca2+ in enhancing postharvest stress resistance and maintaining storage quality in tomatoes.
This study used the tomato variety as the experimental material and applied concentrations of calcium via foliar. The research investigated the effects of different CaCl2 concentrations on physiological indices, quality indices, and calcium uptake and distribution in tomato. The aim was to elucidate the changes and accumulation patterns of calcium content within tomato plants, select the optimal calcium fertilizer application rate for improving tomato fruit yield, and provide a theoretical reference for its application in protected cultivation to address practical production problems.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Conditions

The experiment was conducted in April 2024 in a plastic greenhouse at the teaching and research base of Jilin Agricultural University (41°86′ N, 125°35′ E). Pre-planting soil contained organic matter (42.65 g/kg), alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (101.6 mg/kg)available phosphorus (34.58 mg/kg), available potassium (40.52 mg/kg), Calcium content(0.58 g/kg), Magnesium content (0.35 g/kg) and pH 6.51.
The tested tomato variety was ‘Maofen 802’. (Xi’an Qunxing Seed Industry Co., Ltd., Xi’an, China).
During the trial, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were applied to maintain normal tomato growth. Fertilizer applied were urea, diammonium phosphate, potassium sulfate, and anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2, active ingredient content ≥ 96%, produced by Beijing Chemical Plant, Beijing, China).

2.2. Experimental Design

The experiment employed a randomized block design under combined nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilization. (Basal fertilizer was applied at planting; topdressing was applied at the flowering and fruit setting stage, fruit expansion stage, and fruit ripening stage). The topdressing ratios for N fertilizer were 1:4:4, for P fertilizer 2:2:1, and for K fertilizer 3:3:4). Using no calcium spray as the control (CK), treatments included foliar spraying of calcium fertilizer at 3 g·L−1 (A1), 6 g·L−1 (A2), and 9 g·L−1 (A3), totaling 3 treatments.
Tomato plants were arranged in an east-west row orientation within each plot. Double rows were established per plot, with 13 plants per row, utilizing a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. The CaCl2 solution was prepared using deionized water. Spraying began after the first ear of tomato bloomed, with a spray amount of 38 mL/plant from 9:00 to 11:00 a.m., allowing the CaCl2 solution to drip naturally into the soil, and then spraying every 7 days until the fourth ear of tomato bloomed to ensure uniform water application on the leaves. Plants were topped at the four-trus stage. Other cultivation practices followed conventional methods.

2.3. Measurement Indices and Methods

Beginning at the tomato harvesting stage, 3 plants were randomly selected from each plot. Rinse with deionized water and absorb the moisture. Divide into four parts: leaves, stems, roots and fruits. Kill at 105 °C for 30 min, dry at 80 °C until constant weight, weigh separately, crush through 80 mesh sieve, and use it for calcium content determination. The calcium content was digested by dry ashing method, and the filtrate was determined by inductively coupled plasma spectrometer. At each harvest, individual plants were weighed and measured separately. Harvest weight and fruit number were recorded, and yield per plant was calculated. Fruit fresh weight was measured using an electronic balance; soluble solids content (SSC) was determined using a digital refractometer; soluble sugar content was measured by the anthrone-sulfuric acid colorimetric method [13]; vitamin C (VC) content was determined by the 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol sodium staining method [14]; titratable acid content was measured by the alkali titration method [15]; soluble protein content was determined using the Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250 solution method [16]; nitrate content was measured using the ultraviolet absorption method [13]; lycopene content was determined by colorimetry [17]. Indicators related to calcium accumulation and utilization characteristics were calculated using the following formulas [18]: Organ (root/stem/leaf/fruit) calcium accumulation (g·plant−1) = Organ calcium concentration (mg·g−1) × Organ dry weight (g·plant−1); Calcium absorption efficiency (%) = [(Total calcium accumulation in treated plants-Total calcium accumulation in control plants)/Calcium fertilizer application] × 100%; Calcium utilization efficiency (kg·kg−1) = Total plant dry weight/Calcium fertilizer application; Physiological efficiency of calcium (kg·kg−1) = Plant dry weight/Calcium accumulation in the plant.

2.4. Data Analysis

Basic data processing was performed using Microsoft Excel 2024(Microsoft Inc., Redmond, WA, USA). Statistical analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (27.0). Significant differences were analyzed using Duncan’s multiple range test at a significance level of 0.05. Correlation analysis was performed using Pearson’s test. Graphs were drawn using GraphPad Prism 2024 and Origin Pro 2024.

3. Results

3.1. Effects of Different Treatments on Tomato Dry Matter Accumulation and Quality

3.1.1. Dry Matter Accumulation in Tomato

The dry matter accumulation of tomato under different treatments is shown in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1 that all treatments significantly increased dry matter accumulation in tomato fruits, roots, stems, leaves, and the whole plant. The A2 treatment resulted in the greatest increase in dry matter accumulation across all tissues. Compared to CK, the dry matter accumulation of roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and the whole plant under A2 increased by 50.41%, 43.69%, 38.76%, 45.43%, and 44.3%, respectively. This indicates that foliar application of calcium fertilizer can significantly increase dry matter accumulation in various vegetative organs of tomato.

3.1.2. Tomato Fruit Quality

The fruit quality of tomato under different treatments is shown in Table 2. Spraying with an appropriate concentration of calcium fertilizer promoted the contents of soluble protein, soluble sugar, soluble solids, organic acid, and lycopene in tomato fruits.
As shown in Table 2, the effects of different fertilization treatments on tomato fruit quality indices showed significant differences. Soluble protein content ranged from 1.55 mg·g−1 to 4.18 mg·g−1, with the A2 treatment significantly increasing it by 62.92% compared to CK. A1 and A3 treatments decreased it by 30.46% and 52.31%, respectively. Soluble sugar content was highest under A2 treatment, reaching 3.21%, an increase of 62.12% compared to CK. Soluble sugar content under A1 was higher than CK, increasing by 17.18%, while A3 decreased by 16.16% compared to CK. For soluble solids, the A2 treatment had the highest content at 4.33%, an increase of 17.03% over CK, while A1 and A3 decreased by 1.90% and 18.92%, respectively, compared to CK. Vitamin C content under A1 reached 32.26 mg·kg−1, a significant increase of 37.39% over CK, while that under A3 decreased by 25.06% compared to CK. Titratable acid content under A2 (0.22%) was 38.89%, 52.17%, and 31.25% lower than A1, A3, and CK, respectively. Nitrate content was lowest under A3 at 5.43 μg·g−1. Nitrate contents under A2 and A3 decreased by 21.59% and 60.79%, respectively, compared to CK. Nitrate content under A1 increased by 72.80% compared to CK. Lycopene content was highest under A2, reaching 22.85 mg·kg−1, representing increases of 287.95%, 235.04%, and 29.46% compared to A1, A3, and CK, respectively. Lycopene under A1 and A3 decreased by 66.63% and 61.40% compared to CK. Comprehensive analysis shows that the A2 treatment had the most significant effect on improving tomato fruit quality.

3.2. Effects of Different Treatments on Calcium Uptake and Distribution in Tomato

3.2.1. Calcium Concentration in Tomato Vegetative Organs

The calcium concentration in different vegetative organs of tomato is shown in Table 3. Overall, different concentrations of calcium fertilizer application significantly affected the calcium concentration in roots, stems, leaves, and fruits of tomato. Increasing calcium application resulted in calcium concentrations in different vegetative organs following the order leaf > stem > root > fruit, except under A3 treatment where root Ca exceeded stem Ca.
As shown in Table 3, foliar application of calcium significantly increased root calcium concentration. Specifically, treatment A3 (26.33 mg·g−1) exhibited the highest concentration, which was significantly greater than that in A1 (20.4 mg·g−1; increase of 29.1%), A2 (22.18 mg·g−1; increase of 18.7%), and CK (7.75 mg·g−1; increase of 239.7%). The calcium concentration in the roots of treatment A2 was 8.73% higher than that of treatment CK. Under treatment A2, the calcium concentration in the stems increased by 30.1% and 18.95% compared to treatments A3 and CK, respectively, while it increased by 23.38% compared to treatment A1. The calcium concentration in the leaves was highest in treatment A1, reaching 66.22 mg·g−1, which was 9.78%, 33.40%, and 2.73% higher than treatments A2, A3, and CK, respectively. The calcium concentration in tomato fruits under treatment A2 was significantly different from other treatments, reaching 3.6 mg·g−1, which was 26.32%, 60%, and 69.01% higher than treatments A1, A3, and CK, respectively. In treatments A1 and A2, the calcium concentration in the fruits was higher than in treatment CK, increasing by 33.80% and 69.01% compared to treatment CK. This indicates that foliar application of calcium fertilizer can enhance the absorption and accumulation of calcium in various tissues of the tomato plant.

3.2.2. Proportion of Calcium Accumulation in Tomato Vegetative Organs

The distribution proportion of calcium accumulation in different vegetative organs of tomato was influenced by the concentration of calcium fertilizer (Figure 1). Compared to the CK treatment, calcium application increased the proportion of calcium accumulation in roots and fruits, while decreasing the proportion in stems and leaves.
Regarding the distribution proportion of calcium accumulation in roots, it ranged from 9.95% to 23.03% under different treatments, representing increases of 44.36% to 56.80% compared to CK. A3 had the highest root calcium accumulation proportion at 23.03% (increase of 56.80%). For stems, the distribution proportion ranged from 18.63% to 23.58%. Compared to CK, calcium treatments reduced the stem distribution proportion by 0.8% to 21.01%, with A3 having the lowest at 18.63% (decrease of 0.8%). For leaves, the distribution proportion ranged from 53.37% to 63.73%. Compared to CK, calcium treatments reduced the leaf distribution proportion by 8.91% to 15.79%, with A2 having the lowest at 53.68% (decrease of 8.91%). For fruits, calcium application increased the proportion of calcium accumulation, but only A2 was significantly higher than CK, with an increase of 14.69%. The proportions under A1 and A3 were lower than CK, with decreases of 8.42% to 27.1% (A3 had the lowest fruit proportion at 1.99%, decrease of 8.42%). This indicates that foliar calcium spraying altered the distribution of calcium accumulation among vegetative organs, increasing calcium uptake by roots and fruits while decreasing uptake by stems and leaves.

3.3. Effects of Different Treatments on Calcium Uptake, Utilization, and Yield in Tomato Plants

As shown in Table 4, foliar spraying of calcium fertilizer significantly increased calcium accumulation, calcium uptake efficiency, calcium utilization efficiency, and yield per plant in tomato, while significantly decreasing the calcium physiological efficiency.
Regarding calcium accumulation, it ranged from 3.05 g to 6.96 g under different treatments. Compared to CK, foliar calcium application increased calcium accumulation by 39% to 56.19%, with the highest accumulation under A2 at 6.96 g (increase of 56.19%).
Regarding calcium uptake and utilization efficiency, both showed an initial increase followed by a decrease with increasing concentration under different application methods. Among all treatments, A1 had the highest uptake and utilization efficiencies, at 100.65% and 127.31 kg·kg−1, respectively.
Regarding calcium physiological efficiency. Calcium physiological efficiency ranged from 60.77 to 77.23 kg·kg−1 under different treatments. Compared to CK, foliar calcium treatments decreased physiological efficiency by 9.34% to 21.31%, with A2 having the lowest physiological efficiency at 60.77 kg·kg−1 (decrease of 21.31%).
For yield per plant, it ranged from 3.87 kg to 5.0 kg under different treatments. Compared to CK, foliar calcium application increased yield per plant by 1.53% to 22.61%, with the highest yield under A2 at 5.0 kg (increase of 22.61%). In summary, foliar application of calcium fertilizer can increase tomato yield and promote calcium uptake and accumulation in tomato plants.

3.4. Correlation Analysis Between Indicators of Calcium Fertilizer Uptake and Utilization and Yield in Tomato Plants

The application of calcium fertilizer showed highly significant correlations between indicators of calcium uptake/utilization and yield in tomato plants (Figure 2). Under different concentrations of exogenous calcium spray, calcium accumulation in tomato plants showed a highly significant positive correlation with dry weight per plant (correlation coefficient = 0.983); calcium utilization efficiency showed a highly significant positive correlation with calcium uptake efficiency (correlation coefficient = 0.972). Additionally, calcium physiological efficiency showed highly significant negative correlations with dry weight per plant, plant calcium accumulation, calcium uptake efficiency, and calcium utilization efficiency, with correlation coefficients of −0.893, −0.956, and −0.691 **, respectively (p < 0.01).

4. Discussion

By comparing the effects of different calcium fertilizer treatments on tomato dry matter accumulation, this study revealed that foliar spraying with an appropriate concentration of calcium fertilizer plays a positive role in promoting plant growth and development. Under the 6 g·L−1 CaCl2 treatment, dry matter accumulation in roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and the whole plant was significantly higher than other treatments, with whole-plant dry matter accumulation increasing by 44.3% compared to the control (CK) (Table 1). Wang [19] suggested that calcium application can increase crop dry matter, which is consistent with the findings of this study. This result is closely related to the multiple functions of calcium in plant physiological metabolism. As a key component for cell wall structural stability, calcium ions promote cell elongation and tissue differentiation by enhancing cell wall cross-linking, thereby directly increasing biomass accumulation in vegetative organs [20]. Furthermore, calcium acts as a second messenger involved in plant stress response and hormone signal transduction (such as auxin polar transport), further promoting the synthesis and transport of fruit dry matter by regulating the efficiency of photosynthate partitioning [21]. The differences among treatments indicate that calcium application concentration significantly affects various tomato indices. The dry matter under the 6 g·L−1 CaCl2 treatment was significantly higher than other treatments; the lower dry matter in the remaining treatments compared to 6 g·L−1 CaCl2 may be related to the calcium concentration not reaching the optimal level, suggesting that the growth-promoting effect of calcium fertilizer is dose-dependent. This aligns with Kou’s [20] study on broccoli, where an appropriate calcium concentration increased biomass. This indicates that spraying an appropriate concentration of CaCl2 can increase dry matter accumulation in tomato.
Calcium is an important element for increasing crop yield because it is a major component of cell walls, maintains fruit quality, increases the absorption of macronutrients in the root zone, and contributes to fruit ripening. Simultaneously, calcium deficiency in tomato plants reduces leaf size, causes necrosis of new leaves, and ultimately leads to reduced yield [21,22,23,24]. Exogenous calcium treatment can increase tomato yield, which is consistent with the findings of Hala [23], Olle [25], Karlsons [26], Ayyub [27], and others, all indicating that foliar application of calcium has a positive effect on fruit yield. This study demonstrated that exogenous calcium application significantly improved tomato quality. However, the effect of calcium concentration on tomato growth and quality shows duality; both calcium deficiency and excess calcium can inhibit plant growth and lead to quality decline. Excessively high Ca2+ concentration inhibits the absorption of other nutrients by tomato, resulting in negative effects. In this study, TSS values were higher in calcium-treated tomato fruits, possibly due to slower metabolic activity and respiration rate [28]. Calcium treatment influences the accumulation of sugars and organic acids in tomato fruits. H+-ATPase activity is modulated by cytosolic Ca2+ levels, and its regulation governs the transmembrane transport of organic acids, thereby ultimately determining their accumulation within the fruit pulp [29]. Concurrently, calcium enhances cell wall stability and maintains cellular integrity, thereby fostering a favorable environment for sugar accumulation [30]. Slower respiration leads to reduced synthesis and use of metabolites, ultimately affecting the TSS balance in fruits. The increase in fruit calcium content after calcium application may also contribute to controlling physicochemical changes associated with ripening. Exogenous calcium treatment significantly increased soluble sugar content in tomato fruits. This effect mainly stems from enhanced metabolite accumulation and the conversion of starch under the action of growth regulators during fruit growth and development [31]. Consistent with our findings, Mazumder [12] reported that foliar application of calcium significantly increased fruit sugar content, sugar-acid ratio, and vitamin C content while reducing titratable acid content, thereby improving fruit flavor, which aligns with the results of this study. Lycopene, an important natural antioxidant in fruits and vegetables, has high nutritional value. Its accumulation mainly occurs during the fruit ripening stage, accompanied by chlorophyll degradation and carotenoid synthesis and storage [32,33]. This study found that CaCl2 treatment significantly increased lycopene content, consistent with Haleema’s findings [28]. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) serves as a critical antioxidant in tomato fruits. The presence of calcium enhances its stability and reduces degradation, thereby increasing ascorbic acid content within the fruit [34]. Furthermore, calcium may indirectly stimulate ascorbic acid synthesis by modulating nitrogen metabolism and photosynthetic efficiency. Additionally, calcium contributes to maintaining ascorbic acid levels by delaying its rapid oxidation and regulating oxidative processes within the cytosol [35]. Notably, vitamin C content was highest under the low-concentration CaCl2 treatment in this study, which may be related to high calcium concentrations inhibiting some related metabolic pathways [36], while moderate calcium concentrations may indirectly promote ascorbic acid accumulation by alleviating oxidative stress. Furthermore, high-concentration CaCl2 treatment significantly reduced nitrate content in tomato fruits, consistent with Somayeh’s [37] conclusion that calcium treatment reduces nitrate content in tomato fruit.
This study showed that increasing calcium application resulted in calcium concentrations in different vegetative organs following the order leaf > stem > root > fruit. Calcium is primarily transported within plants via the xylem, driven by transpiration, usually moving upward from roots to stems, leaves, and fruits. The increase in root calcium content observed in the experiment may be attributed to two potential mechanisms. On one hand, foliar application may have promoted overall plant growth and enhanced photosynthetic activity, leading to increased carbohydrate production. This could provide more energy for the roots, thereby facilitating the active uptake of calcium [38]. On the other hand, it is possible that during application, the CaCl2 solution drained into the soil, leading to increased calcium levels in the soil and thereby promoting root absorption of calcium. The increase in stem calcium content after exogenous calcium spraying may be related to active water physiological metabolism within the plant, possibly stemming from the transfer of active calcium components in the phloem or the upward transport of active calcium from the soil. Studies by Eraslan [39] and Zhang [40] showed that exogenous calcium spraying increases leaf Ca content, consistent with the results here. Exogenous calcium application increased tomato calcium content because it enhanced the activity of fructokinase and sucrose synthase, accelerating the allocation of photoassimilates to fruits [34]. Results from Haleem [34], Dong [41], Santos [42], and others indicate that foliar spraying of calcium chloride significantly increases fruit calcium concentration, consistent with this study. Calcium application increases fruit calcium content, possibly because it influences senescence-related changes such as free sugars, anthocyanin content, organic acids, and fruit texture [43]. Notably, when calcium concentration increased from 6 g·L−1 to 9 g·L−1, fruit calcium content decreased. This suggests that excess calcium does not lead to increased calcium uptake by fruits, consistent with Coolong’s findings [44]. Calcium fertilizer application significantly altered the calcium distribution pattern in tomato plants. Compared to the control (CK), calcium application increased the proportion of calcium accumulation in roots and fruits, while decreasing the proportion in stems and leaves.
Calcium plays a dual critical role in plants: on one hand, as a structural component of cell walls, it is crucial for maintaining cell membrane stability and permeability; on the other hand, as an intracellular and intercellular “second messenger,” calcium participates in mediating signal transduction in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. Additionally, calcium plays an irreplaceable role in promoting overall plant growth and nutrient uptake [45,46,47]. This study showed that foliar calcium spraying significantly increased calcium accumulation in tomato plants, with the A2 treatment showing the best performance (increase of 56.19%). This phenomenon is closely related to the transport characteristics of calcium within plants. Studies indicate that calcium accumulation in tomato fruits relies mainly on transpiration-driven xylem transport. Foliar spraying allows calcium ions to directly penetrate the leaf epidermis into the phloem system, enabling preferential allocation to fruits [42]. Foliar calcium application can promote the redistribution of calcium from roots and leaves to calyxes and fruits, increasing fruit calcium content by altering calcium transport pathways. This process may involve high calcium concentrations promoting the synthesis of calcium pectate in cell walls, thereby optimizing calcium form and distribution. Studies show that adding exogenous calcium can significantly enhance calcium uptake and accumulation in organs of tall fescue and poplar, indicating the existence of an optimal calcium concentration threshold for maximizing nutrient enrichment [48]. The results of this experiment indicate that after exogenous calcium spraying, calcium accumulation in tomato plants significantly increased, reaching its maximum under the 6 g·L−1 CaCl2 treatment. However, calcium uptake and utilization efficiency initially increased and then decreased with increasing exogenous calcium concentration. This may be due to the abundant supply of calcium in the soil, leading plants to adapt by reducing uptake and utilization efficiency, forming a self-regulatory mechanism [49]. The elemental content in different organs also reflects plant physiological activity and adaptation strategies to the environment, consistent with Li’s findings [50]. Under high calcium concentrations, the antagonism between calcium and essential elements like zinc and magnesium may be enhanced, potentially further reducing the uptake efficiency of calcium and other elements. The phenomenon of antagonism between elements leading to changes in physiological efficiency has also been reported in other studies. For example, Shivay [51] found that zinc application reduced the physiological efficiency of rice and wheat (but increased yield), showing some similarity to the calcium efficiency trend observed in this study.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, foliar application of CaCl2 significantly enhanced tomato growth (indicated by increased dry matter accumulation), improved fruit quality, increased yield, and promoted calcium uptake and accumulation. Furthermore, it altered calcium allocation, enhancing uptake by roots and fruits while reducing uptake by stems and leaves. These findings demonstrate that foliar spraying of 3–6 g·L−1 CaCl2 provides an effective strategy to enhance tomato productivity and economic returns in commercial protected cultivation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.W.; methodology, C.W.; software, N.X.; validation, N.X.; formal analysis, N.X.; investigation, N.X.; resources, C.W.; data curation, N.X.; writing—original draft preparation, C.W.; writing—review and editing, W.W.; visualization, C.W.; supervision, C.W.; project administration, W.W.; funding acquisition, W.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the earmarked fund for 2025 Jilin Province Agricultural Major Technology Collaborative Promotion Pilot Project [2025XT0803].

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Horticulturae 11 00986 g001
Figure 1. Proportion of calcium accumulation in different organ of tomato under different treatments.
Figure 1. Proportion of calcium accumulation in different organ of tomato under different treatments.
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Figure 2. Heat map of correlation analysis between calcium fertilizer uptake and utilization indexes and yield of tomato plants.
Figure 2. Heat map of correlation analysis between calcium fertilizer uptake and utilization indexes and yield of tomato plants.
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Table 1. Dry matter accumulation of tomato under different treatments.
Table 1. Dry matter accumulation of tomato under different treatments.
TreatmentRoot (g)Stem (g)Leaf (g)Fruit (g)Whole Plant (g)
3 g (A1)6.39 ± 0.12 b61.91 ± 3.27 a55.6 ± 1.57 b258.04 ± 1.99 b381.94 ± 6.59 b
6 g (A2)9.8 ± 0.61 a65.28 ± 2.35 a66.66 ± 2.04 a281.37 ± 12.16 a423.11 ± 13.39 a
9 g (A3)5.9 ± 0.34 b55.57 ± 2.72 b48.42 ± 0.8 c240.03 ± 22.51 b349.92 ± 19.8 c
0 g (CK)4.86 ± 0.67 c36.76 ± 1.11 c40.52 ± 0.17 d153.53 ± 1.17 c235.68 ± 2.26 d
Note: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Three repeats were used; the same applies below. The data are presented as the mean ± standard error.
Table 2. Effects of different concentrations of calcium fertilizer on tomato fruit quality.
Table 2. Effects of different concentrations of calcium fertilizer on tomato fruit quality.
TreatmentSoluble Protein
(mg·g−1 FW)		Soluble Sugar
(% FW)		Soluble Solid
(% FW)		Vitamin C
(mg·kg−1 FW)		Organic Acid
(% FW)		Nitrate
(ug·g−1 FW)		Lycopene
(mg·kg−1 FW)
3 g (A1)2.26 ± 1.79 ab2.32 ± 0.1 3 b3.63 ± 0.68 ab32.26 ± 2.29 a0.36 ± 0.09 ab23.93 ± 10.16 a5.89 ± 0.51 c
6 g (A2)4.18 ± 0.81 a3.21 ± 0.42 a4.33 ± 0.4 a27.05 ± 2.27 b0.22 ± 0.02 c10.86 ± 6.67 ab22.85 ± 4.5 a
9 g (A3)1.55 ± 0.92 b1.66 ± 0.1 b3.0 ± 0.1 b17.59 ± 1.56 c0.46 ± 0.04 a5.43 ± 3.67 b6.82 ± 0.86 c
0 g (CK)3.25 ± 0.2 ab1.98 ± 0.68 b3.7 ± 0.2 ab23.48 ± 0.63 d0.32 ± 0.04 b13.85 ± 3.42 ab17.65 ± 2.93 b
Note: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Three repeats were used; the same applies below. The data are presented as the mean ± standard error.
Table 3. Calcium concentration in different parts of tomato under different treatments.
Table 3. Calcium concentration in different parts of tomato under different treatments.
TreatmentRoot (mg·g−1)Stem (mg·g−1)Leaf (mg·g−1)Fruit (mg·g−1)
3 g (A1)20.4 ± 0.98 c24.6 ± 1.39 a66.22 ± 1.04 a2.85 ± 0.11 b
6 g (A2)22.18 ± 1.06 b26.28 ± 1.11 a60.32 ± 0.89 c3.6 ± 0.43 a
9 g (A3)26.33 ± 1.1 a21.3 ± 1.03 b64.46 ± 1.12 b2.25 ± 0.13 c
0 g (CK)7.75 ± 0.21 d18.37 ± 1.06 c49.64 ± 0.92 d2.13 ± 0.01 c
Note: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Three repeats were used; the same applies below. The data are presented as the mean ± standard error.
Table 4. Effects of different treatments on calcium absorption, utilization and yield of tomato.
Table 4. Effects of different treatments on calcium absorption, utilization and yield of tomato.
TreatmentCalcium Accumulation (g/Plant)Calcium Absorption Efficiency
(%)		Calcium Utilization Efficiency (kg/kg)Physiological Efficiency of Calcium
(kg/kg)		Single Plant Yield (kg)
3 g (A1)6.07 ± 0.23 b100.65 ± 6.79 a127.31 ± 2.2 a62.94 ± 1.34 c4.28 ± 0.18 b
6 g (A2)6.96 ± 0.07 a65.19 ± 1.46 b70.52 ± 2.23 b60.77 ± 1.86 c5.0 ± 0.11 a
9 g (A3)5.0 ± 0.07 b21.62 ± 1.04 c38.88 ± 2.2 c70.02 ± 3.82 b3.93 ± 0.43 b
0 g (CK)3.05 ± 0.03 b--77.23 ± 0.34 a3.87 ± 0.29 b
Note: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Three repeats were used; the same applies below. The data are presented as the mean ± standard error.
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Wu, C.; Xia, N.; Wang, W. Exogenous Calcium on Calcium Accumulation, Uptake and Utilization in Tomato. Horticulturae 2025, 11, 986. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080986

AMA Style

Wu C, Xia N, Wang W. Exogenous Calcium on Calcium Accumulation, Uptake and Utilization in Tomato. Horticulturae. 2025; 11(8):986. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080986

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Wu, Chunyan, Nan Xia, and Wei Wang. 2025. "Exogenous Calcium on Calcium Accumulation, Uptake and Utilization in Tomato" Horticulturae 11, no. 8: 986. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080986

APA Style

Wu, C., Xia, N., & Wang, W. (2025). Exogenous Calcium on Calcium Accumulation, Uptake and Utilization in Tomato. Horticulturae, 11(8), 986. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080986

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