Biogeography, Conservation Status, and Traditional Uses of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, Thailand, with Kaempferia chaveerachiae sp. nov.
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Diversity of Family Zingiberaceae and Vascular Plant for Its Applications Research Unit, Walai Rukhavej Botanical Research Institute, Mahasarakham University, Kantarawichai District, Maha Sarakham 44150, Thailand
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Diversity of Family Zingiberaceae and Vascular Plant for Its Applications Research Unit, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahasarakham University, Kantarawichai District, Maha Sarakham 44150, Thailand
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2024, 10(9), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090934
Submission received: 25 July 2024
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Revised: 28 August 2024
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Accepted: 29 August 2024
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Published: 31 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Medicinals, Herbs, and Specialty Crops)
Abstract
:This research investigates the Zingiberaceae family in Saraburi Province, Thailand, aiming to understand its biodiversity, distribution, ecology, conservation status, and traditional uses. Through systematic exploration, 103 species are identified, including a novel species, Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk, and Boonma. Additionally, 23 species are newly reported for distribution in Saraburi Province. Methodologically, a district-wise analysis and the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) cluster analysis were employed to discern species prevalence and geographical patterns. Findings reveal varied species distribution aligned with diverse ecological conditions, informing targeted conservation strategies. Fourteen endemic species and the District Endemism Index emphasize localized conservation significance. Assessment of conservation status highlights critical and vulnerable species, prompting focused conservation initiatives. Phenological analysis underscores adaptability through flowering peaks tied to environmental cues. Ethnobotanical insights highlight the multifunctionality of Zingiberaceae, emphasizing its cultural significance and traditional applications. This study offers valuable insights into Zingiberaceae diversity, advocating for tailored conservation strategies and sustainable practices in Saraburi Province to safeguard its unique flora, habitats, and indigenous knowledge.
1. Introduction
Thailand boasts remarkable biodiversity within the Zingiberaceae family, featuring two subfamilies, four tribes, and 28 genera, housing an impressive collection of over 400 species [1,2]. This rich tapestry of biodiversity extends across the nation, flourishing in a variety of ecosystems, including deciduous and evergreen forests [3]. The widespread distribution of these species highlights their adaptability to diverse environments; certain species are distributed throughout the entire country, while others exhibit a more localized distribution, restricted to particular and narrow regions ranging from coastal areas to high mountainous regions [4,5,6,7,8,9].
As global biodiversity faces increasing threats from habitat loss, climate change, and human activities, gaining a holistic understanding of the plants that form the foundation of our ecosystems becomes imperative [10]. This study contributes to our knowledge of Zingiberaceae and underscores the importance of preserving the natural heritage of Saraburi Province while respecting the cultural traditions that have co-evolved with these remarkable plants. The province of Saraburi, nestled in the heart of Thailand, boasts an astonishing tapestry of natural beauty, rich biodiversity, and a long history of traditional knowledge and cultural practices. Within this lush, verdant landscape and its limestone mountains, the family Zingiberaceae, or the ginger family, plays a significant ecological and cultural role. As an integral component of the local flora, Zingiberaceae encompasses a diverse array of species, many of which are endemic to the region such as Boesenbergia collinsii Mood & L.M. Prince [11], Curcuma saraburiensis Boonma & Saensouk [12], C. supraneeana (W.J.Kress & K.Larsen) Škorničk. [13,14], and Kaempferia saraburiensis Picheans [15]. The family’s importance transcends ecological and taxonomical significance, extending into ethnobotanical realms, as the indigenous communities in Saraburi Province have cultivated a deep-rooted relationship with these plants over generations.
In light of escalating anthropogenic pressures and the need for informed conservation strategies, it is imperative to conduct a comprehensive study that delves into the biogeographic aspects, ecological dynamics, and conservation status of the plants in the Zingiberaceae family in Saraburi Province, aiming to provide a holistic overview of the Zingiberaceae family, embracing its biodiversity, distribution patterns, ecological interactions, and conservation needs within this unique geographical and cultural context.
This article serves as a portal to explore the intricacies of the Zingiberaceae family within Saraburi Province, striving to bridge the gap between scientific understanding and traditional knowledge systems. In doing so, it seeks to contribute valuable insights for the conservation and sustainable management of this botanical treasure while recognizing its significant importance in the cultural heritage of the local communities. By marrying the realms of ecology, botany, and traditional uses, this research aims to understand the Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province, serving as a blueprint for biodiversity conservation in the region and highlighting the significance of preserving the delicate balance between nature and culture.
In this study, we embark on a journey through the vibrant landscapes of Saraburi Province, exploring the distribution patterns, ecological roles, conservation status, and deep-rooted ethnobotanical connections of the ginger family, painting a vivid picture of the biodiversity and cultural richness of this Thai province. The findings from this research can serve as a basis for well-informed conservation strategies and sustainable resource management practices in this ecologically and culturally significant region.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
Saraburi Province, located in central Thailand (Figure 1), is bordered by Lopburi, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nakhon Nayok, Pathum Thani, and Ayutthaya provinces. Covering an area of approximately 2186.99 km2, about 24.46% of the land is forested. The province is divided into 13 districts and features a varied landscape, including three national parks: Chet Sao Noi (approximately 42 km2), Sam Lan (approximately 45 km2), and notable limestone mountains. The highest peak is Khao Khrok, reaching 329 m above sea level. The Pasak River runs through the province. Saraburi experiences a distinct dry season and a rainy period from May to October. April is usually the hottest month, while January is the coolest.
2.2. Diversity Study and Plant Materials
Field surveys and specimen collection: Exploration and collecting plant specimens of the Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, conducted between 1 October 2022 and 30 November 2023, 1–4 times per month. Our survey was conducted randomly, covering all accessible areas within Saraburi Province, while in the protected area, we opted not to collect physical specimens, instead, we focused on taking photographs and making detailed field notes to document our findings. Spirit specimens preserved in ethanol (70%) were deposited at the Mahasarakham University Herbarium (MSU). The holotype of a new species is deposited at the Faculty of Forestry Herbarium (FOF), while the isotype is deposited at MSU and the Brio Botanical Research Garden (BBRG).
Specimen Analysis: Detailed observations of the plants were conducted, and their morphological characteristics were examined under a microscope. These findings were then compared with the descriptions of the protologue or existing species to accurately identify the species, e.g., using descriptions in the Flora of Thailand Volume 16 part 2 [16].
Data Comparison and Analysis: To accurately document morphological characteristics, precise measurements were taken using tools such as rulers and vernier calipers, with detailed examinations conducted using a stereoscopic microscope (Stemi 2000-C, Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). For accurate species identification, a comprehensive comparison of our specimens’ morphological traits was carried out. This included analyzing the morphological descriptions of Zingiberaceae family plants, focusing on their distribution in Thailand and nearby countries. We thoroughly reviewed detailed descriptions from primary taxonomic publications and major databases, such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Additionally, we utilized photographs of specimens from Kew’s Herbarium and the Kew Science website [1], data from the Muséum national d’Histoire Naturelle online collection (https://science.mnhn.fr) (accessed on 30 April 2024), and the Zingiberaceae Resource Center online database (https://padme.rbge.org.uk/ZRC) (accessed on 1 May 2024). Digital images and data from notable herbarium collections, including Aarhus University Herbarium (AAU), The Forest Herbarium (BKF), Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Herbarium (E), The Herbarium of Faculty of Forestry (FOF), Royal Botanic Gardens Herbarium (K), National Museum of Natural History (P), Queen Sirikit Botanical Garden Herbarium (QBG), and Singapore Botanic Gardens Herbarium (SING), were also reviewed through visual inspection. This comprehensive approach ensured that our comparisons were based on accurate and thorough information.
2.3. Study on Distribution of the Ginger Plants in Saraburi
The data collection process involved documenting species individually by district (as shown in Figure 1) based on the diversity study. These data were used to differentiate between plants found in their natural habitat, plants under cultivation, and those observed in both situations. The distribution status of each species was also assessed to determine whether it was a native or introduced species. Information was obtained from powo.science.kew.org, and distribution records were sourced from print and online research publications. To ensure reliability, references prioritizing specimens deposited in many herbaria were used.
The native species which are endemic—restricted to a small area, e.g., district area, are recorded as local endemic (L-EDM), species which are restricted to the limits of a province are recorded as provincial endemic (P-EDM), species which are restricted to the limits of a floristic region of Thailand (according to the flora of Thailand project) are recorded as regional endemic (R-EDM), and species which are restricted to the limits of a country are recorded as national endemic (N-EDM). Meanwhile, species found to be native to Thailand but not endemic are recorded as native and introduced species are recorded as introduced.
2.4. Ecology Study
Data on the types of forests that Zingiberaceae plants inhabit were collected concurrently with the survey of Zingiberaceae diversity and traditional usage in Saraburi Province. Plants found within forested areas are documented in Table 1, specifying the types of forests they inhabit, which include evergreen forest (Evg), dry evergreen forest (Dvg), mixed deciduous forest (Mix), deciduous forest (Dcf), and limestone courtyard forest (Lcf). Those cultivated for various purposes in home gardens or other settings are categorized as “Cultivated”. Additionally, geological information such as limestone areas (LSA), undifferentiated volcanic rocks areas (UVR), and colluvial and residual deposits (CRD) are also recorded in Table 1. The data can be used to analyze the relationship between ecology and species distribution of Zingiberaceae species in Saraburi Province, Central Thailand.
2.5. Phenology Study
The study of phenology involves recording flowering and fruiting data during the survey of Zingiberaceae diversity in Saraburi Province. A numerical value from 1 to 12 will be assigned to each month, corresponding to January through December. These data are analyzed in conjunction with rainfall records and presented graphically to illustrate their association. In this research on Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, focusing on flowering and fruiting stages is crucial for understanding reproductive success, distribution, and economic significance. Assessing the entire growth cycle was not feasible within the one-year study duration and would require longer-term observations. Additionally, many Zingiberaceae species grow continuously without a dormant phase, making flowering and fruiting stages most relevant. This focus also helps reveal how climate change affects these plants, as these stages are sensitive to environmental changes, providing insights into shifts in reproductive timing and conservation needs.
2.6. Traditional Use
Information on the use of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province was collected by interviewing 390 villagers, with 30 participants (an equal number of male and female) from each district, resulting in 195 individuals of each gender, and all lived in their own homes within Saraburi Province, excluding rental buildings or rooms. Prior to questioning, explicit consent was obtained from the informants, who were briefed on this study’s objectives, ensuring their willingness to participate. Questions focused exclusively on plant names, parts used, and purposes. Personal information was not requested or collected during the survey, thus exempting this study from the need for research ethics approval documentation.
2.7. Conservation Status
The Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province were carefully assessed using the guidelines of the IUCN Red List [17] to determine their conservation status.
2.8. Statistical Analysis
2.8.1. Jaccard’s Similarity Index
The assessment of species diversity in thirteen districts was conducted using Jaccard’s Similarity Index (JI). This index, denoted as JI, is a widely recognized metric for comparing the similarity between two sets [18]. In the context of our study, it was employed to quantify the similarity in species composition among the districts. The Jaccard’s Similarity Index (JI) was calculated using this formula:
where a represents the species found in both districts, b represents the species found only in the first district, and c represents the species found only in the second district [19]. The application of Jaccard’s Similarity Index allowed for a quantitative assessment of species diversity, enabling a rigorous comparison of the ecological composition across the thirteen districts. This index provides valuable insights into the degree of similarity or dissimilarity in species presence, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the biodiversity patterns in the study area.
The unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) was used to evaluate the similarity in species diversity among the studied districts. The Jaccard Similarity Index quantified the shared species between each pair of districts. The resulting similarity matrix was used as input for the UPGMA algorithm. The clustering and dendrogram construction were performed using the Past4 program. The generated dendrogram visually represents the hierarchical clustering of districts based on their species composition, providing insights into their ecological relationships, and identifying clusters with similar biodiversity profiles.
2.8.2. The District Endemism Index for Thailand’s Endemic Plant Species
The endemism index serves as a quantitative measure to assess the degree of species uniqueness within a defined geographical area. The calculation is based on the ratio of species endemic to a specific region compared to the total species found in that area. In calculating the District Endemism Index, only wild species are considered, while cultivated species are excluded from the computation.
In this study, we applied an adapted version of the endemism index equation from Linder [20], originally developed to assess plant diversity and endemism in sub-Saharan tropical Africa. While Linder’s methodology was designed for broader geographic scales, we modified it to calculate endemism at the district level within Saraburi Province, Central Thailand. This adaptation was crucial for capturing localized biodiversity patterns and understanding the distribution of wild Zingiberaceae species endemic to Thailand within specific districts. By focusing on this finer scale, our analysis aims to provide more detailed insights into species uniqueness and to inform targeted conservation strategies at the district level. The formula for the district endemism index is expressed as:
where: Ne = the number of wild species of Zingiberaceae species endemic to Thailand found in a particular district, which denotes the count of Zingiberaceae species observed within the delineated district boundaries that are recognized as endemic to Thailand, indicating their occurrence solely within the country’s geographic confines. While Nt = the total number of wild species of Zingiberaceae Species in a particular district, which represents the comprehensive count of all recorded Zingiberaceae species within the specified district area, encompassing both endemic and non-endemic species.
The resulting District Endemism Index value (DEI), expressed as percentages, serves as an indicator of the proportionate richness of Thailand’s endemic plant species within each district. Higher index values suggest a greater prevalence of endemic plant species within the district, while lower values indicate a comparatively lower proportion of endemic plant species. The DEI will be converted to a color value, as depicted in Figure 2.
All graphics designed and all illustrations in this study were created using the Pixelmator Pro Program (version 3.6.5 (Archipelago), 2023, Pixelmator Team, Vilnius, Lithuania) on a MacBook Pro (13-inch, M1, 2020, Apple Inc., Cupertino, CA, USA). Line drawings were executed on an iPad Air 5 (iPadOS 17.5.1 (21F90), 2024, Apple Inc., Cupertino, CA, USA).
3. Results
3.1. Diversity
The species diversity within the Zingiberaceae family in Saraburi Province includes two subfamilies: Alpinioideae and Zingiberoideae. These subfamilies are divided into three tribes, consisting of 14 genera and 103 species. Specifically, the Alpinieae tribe comprises 18 species, the Globbeae tribe contains 17 species, and the Zingibereae tribe includes 68 species, as illustrated in Figure 3. The bar graph uses different colors to indicate the genera within each tribe: green for Alpinieae, pink for Globbeae, and orange for Zingibereae.
In the Alpinieae tribe, genus Alpinia has the greatest diversity with 9 spp., followed by Amomum with 3 spp., Etlingera and Meistera with 2 spp. each, and Conamomum and Wurfbainia with 1 sp. each. Within the Globbeae tribe, Globba stands out with 15 spp., while Gagnepainia has 2 spp. The Zingibereae tribe shows the highest diversity in the Curcuma genus with 29 spp., Kaempferia with 18 spp., Zingiber with 10 spp., genus Boesenbergia with 6 spp., Cornukaempferia with 3 spp., and Hedychium with 2 spp. Additional details on the Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province are in Table 1 (key to genera and species are in Tables S1 and S2, respectively).
3.2. Distribution
In the overview of Saraburi Province, a total of 103 species were identified. Among these, 49 species were found in natural forest habitats, 90 species were cultivated, and 36 species were present in both natural habitats and cultivated. A total of 13 species are exclusively found in the wild, including Alpinia macroura, A. oxymitra, Amomum repoeense, Boesenbergia collinsii, B. parvula, Conamomum pierreanum, Etlingera araneosa, Globba thorelii, Kaempferia chaveerachiae, Meistera koenigii, M. tomrey, Wurfbainia uliginosa, and Zingiber thorelii, whereas 54 species are exclusively cultivated and not found in natural habitats (Table 1).
Species diversity in each district: The districts boasting the highest diversity of Zingiberaceae family plants include Phra Phutthabat District, leading with 88 spp., followed closely by Kaeng Khoi District with 85 spp. Muak Lek District showcases 77 spp., Wang Muang District follows with 71, and Wihan Daeng District presents 62 spp. Mueang Saraburi District hosts 57 spp., while both Nong Khae and Chaloem Phra Kiat Districts exhibit 56 spp. each. Moving down the list, Ban Mo District features 50 spp., Sao Hai Districts showcase 37 spp., Nong Saeng and Don Phut Districts each showcase 36 spp., and Nong Don District features 35 spp. (Figure 4A).
Species found in the wild (natural habitat): The district of Muak Lek had the highest number of species surveyed at 42 wild species out of the 103 surveyed; following closely behind were Kaeng Khoi District with 38 species and Mueang Saraburi, Nong Khae, and Wihan Daeng Districts, each harboring 22 species. Phra Phutthabat District recorded 19 species, Wang Muang District 15 species, and Chaloem Phra Kiat District 11 species. However, in districts like Ban Mo, Don Phut, Nong Don, Nong Saeng, and Sao Hai, Zingiberaceae species are notably absent from their forests due to unsuitable landscapes. These areas primarily cater to agricultural, industrial, and residential needs, lacking the necessary terrain for these Zingiberaceae plants. Moreover, forests situated along waterways and roadsides often experience flooding during the rainy season, rendering them unsuitable for supporting Zingiberaceae’s natural habitat (Figure 4B).
Species found in both situations: Khang Khoi stands out for having the highest count of species occurring in both wild and cultivation with 18 spp. Following closely are Phra Phutthabat District with 12 spp. and Muak Lek District recording 11 spp., while Mueang Saraburi District features 10 spp. Nong Khae and Wihan Daeng Districts each showcase 9 spp., with Wang Muang District also featuring 7 spp. and Chaloem Phra Kiat District 6 spp. Interestingly, certain districts, namely Ban Mo, Don Phut, Nong Don, Nong Saeng, and Sao Hai, do not feature species common to both situations. This absence is due to the cultivated plants not being present in the natural habitat areas within these districts. This distinction underscores the unique composition and habitat preferences of cultivated plants in these specific districts (Figure 4C).
Species found in cultivation: Phra Phutthabat District exhibits the highest species diversity in cultivation with 81 species; following this is Kaeng Khoi District with 65 spp., Wang Muang District with 63 spp., Chaloem Phra Kiat District with 51 spp., Ban Mo District with 50 spp., Wihan Daeng District with 49 spp., Muak Lek District with 46 spp., Mueang Saraburi District with 45 spp., Nong Khae District with 43 spp., Sao Hai District with 37 spp., Nong Saeng and Don Phut Districts each with 36 spp., and Nong Don District with 35 spp. (Figure 4D).
At the genus level, Globba is identified as having the highest number at 12 species present in the forest area, followed by Curcuma with 9 spp., Kaempferia with 6 spp., Zingiber with 6 spp., Boesenbergia with 5 spp., Alpinia with 4 spp., Meistera with 2 spp., and these genera, namely, Amomum, Conamomum, Etlingera, Gagnepainia, and Wurfbainia, each include 1 species, whereas Cornukaempferia and Hedychium are absent from the forests of Saraburi Province. Curcuma ranks highest among cultivated species with 29, while Kaempferia has 18 species, followed by Globba with 14 species, Zingiber with 10 species, Alpinia with 7 species, Boesenbergia with 4 species, Cornukaempferia with 3 species, Amomum with 2 species, Gagnepainia with 2 species, Hedychium with 2 species, and Etlingera with 1 species. In contrast, Conamomum, Meistera, and Wurfbainia are not found in cultivation in Saraburi Province. The genus Globba has the greatest number of species observed in both environments, with 11 species, followed by Curcuma with 9 species, Kaempferia with 5 species, Zingiber with 5 species, and Boesenbergia with 4 species. Alpinia and Gagnepainia each contain a single species, while other genera are each represented in only one of the examined situations (Amomum, Conamomum, Cornukaempferia, Etlingera, Hedychium, Meistera, and Wurfbainia) (Figure 5).
The data on Zingiberaceae species diversity and distribution in Saraburi Province can be utilized to examine the similarities between Zingiberaceae species across different districts within the province, as illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6 displays the UPGMA cluster analysis dendrogram, which highlights the similarities of Zingiberaceae species found exclusively in forested areas across various districts in Saraburi Province. This analysis reveals the species diversity of Zingiberaceae in the Nong Khae, Mueang Saraburi, and Wihan Daeng districts, indicating similar species diversity among these areas. This similarity could be due to the persistent forest environments and comparable ecological conditions found in these districts. Kaeng Khoi and Muak Lek districts are also part of this cluster, likely due to Kaeng Khoi’s connection to the earlier three districts through the Sam Lan Mountain range. Additionally, the lower areas of Kaeng Khoi and Muak Lek districts share a boundary with the Khao Yai forest, which may account for the similar species distribution observed.
Another cluster on the dendrogram that includes Phra Phutthabat, Chaloem Phra Kiat, and Wang Muang districts shows notable similarities, which corresponds to their locations in the northern part of Saraburi Province and at the same latitude. In particular, the contiguous mountain ranges of Chaloem Phra Kiat and Phra Phutthabat districts contribute to the greatest similarity in species diversity.
In contrast, districts such as Sao Hai, Nong Don, Don Phut, Ban Mo, and Nong Saeng are excluded from the analysis because no Zingiberaceae species were found in their forest areas. These districts are mostly flat plains without natural forests, which explains the absence of wild Zingiberaceae species and their exclusion from the analysis of species similarity among those found in natural forest areas.
4. The Endemism of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province
Fourteen endemic species were found in their natural habitat in Saraburi Province include: Boesenbergia collinsii, Curcuma rangsimae, C. saraburiensis, C. supraneeana, Globba chrysochila, G. colpicola, G. obscura, G. williamsiana, G. xantholeuca, Kaempferia chaveerachiae, K. lopburiensis, K. nigrifolia, K. saraburiensis, and Zingiber brachystachys (Figure 7).
In the unique tapestry of Saraburi Province’s districts, the District Endemism Index for Thailand’s endemic plant species becomes an illuminating beacon of biodiversity conservation. Within these distinct geographical divisions, the index serves as a key indicator, blending the essence of endemism and species richness to unveil the exceptional flora exclusive to this region. Meticulously calculating the ratio of the number of Zingiberaceae species endemic to Thailand found in a specific district (Ne) to the total number of Zingiberaceae species in that district (Nt), this index unveils the degree of rarity and uniqueness within each district. This computation excludes cultivated species, focusing solely on species diversity found in their natural habitat. Expressed as a percentage, the resulting DEI for Saraburi’s districts showcases the proportionate richness of Thailand’s exclusive plant species (Figure 8). Higher DEI values signal a flourishing prevalence of these endemic species within a district, highlighting its conservation significance. Conversely, lower values indicate a relatively diminished presence of these unique species, guiding conservation efforts to prioritize and protect the distinct biodiversity within Saraburi Province’s individual districts.
Phra Phutthabat District emerges as the district with the highest DEI value, standing at 52.632%. This notably high value indicates a substantial prevalence of Thailand’s endemic plant species within the district. Such a result emphasizes the district’s ecological significance and warrants focused attention for conservation efforts. The concentration of exclusive plant species in this area underscores its potential as a key habitat requiring protection and preservation measures. Following closely is Chaloem Phra Kiat District with a DEI value of 45.455%. Similarly, this district exhibits a significant proportion of endemic plant species, indicating a rich and unique biodiversity deserving conservation attention.
Wang Muang District and Kaeng Khoi District maintain intermediate DEI values at 26.667% and 24.316%, respectively. While not as high as Phra Phutthabat and Chaloem Phra Kiat, these districts still possess a notable representation of Thailand’s exclusive plant species. This highlights the need for conservation strategies to safeguard these unique ecosystems.
Mueang Saraburi District, Nong Khae District, and Wihan Daeng District share the same DEI percentage at 22.727%. This suggests a relatively similar level of endemism within these districts, signifying a moderate presence of exclusive plant species that should be considered in conservation planning.
Muak Lek District exhibits a DEI value of 19.048%. While lower compared to several other districts, it still signifies a certain degree of endemism, warranting conservation actions to protect the unique plant species within its boundaries.
However, Ban Mo District, Don Phut District, Nong Don District, Nong Saeng District, and Sao Hai District all exhibit a DEI value of 0. This signifies an absence of Thailand’s endemic plant species within the forest of these districts. Conservation efforts in these areas might prioritize other biodiversity aspects or focus on restoring ecological balance to potentially support the reintroduction of endemic species.
In summary, the diverse range of DEI values across Saraburi Province’s districts highlights the varying degrees of endemism and underscores the importance of tailored conservation strategies to protect and maintain the unique biodiversity within each district. High DEI values signal areas of crucial importance for conservation efforts, while lower values can guide interventions aimed at restoring and enhancing biodiversity in those regions.
Furthermore, this study revealed that numerous plant species endemic to Thailand are cultivated in households and various locations for diverse purposes. However, these species were not found within the forested area of Saraburi Province. They include Amomum foetidum, A. wandokthong, Cornukaempferia argentifolia, C. aurantiiflora, C. kamolwaniae, Curcuma charanii, C. micrantha, C. phrayawan, C. puangpeniae, C. putii, C. rangjued, C. rosea, C. sabhasrii, C. suraponii, C. wanenlueanga, K. larsenii, K. maculifolia, K. napavarniae, K. pardi, K. sakonensis, and K. takensis.
5. The Ecology of Zingiberaceae Plant Habitat in Saraburi Province
The Zingiberaceae wild plants found in Saraburi Province are distributed across various types of forests. The dry evergreen forest (Dvg) is the most frequently encountered habitat, hosting 26 species. This is followed by deciduous forests (Dcf) with 21 species, mixed deciduous forests (Mix) with 20 species, evergreen forests (Evg) with 7 species, and limestone courtyard forest (Lcf) with 2 species.
The dendrogram (Figure 9) presented reveals the similarity patterns among Zingiberaceae species across various forest types in Saraburi Province. Limestone courtyard forest, notably distinguished by the first branch, showcases a distinct species composition, setting it apart from the other forest types. Subsequently, evergreen forest branches off, indicating its unique ecological characteristics that differentiate it from the remaining forests. Deciduous forest forms a separate cluster, signifying a specific species composition distinct from evergreen and limestone courtyard forests. Intriguingly, mixed deciduous and dry evergreen forests share a close cluster, suggesting a high degree of similarity in their species diversity. This clustering pattern implies a shared ecological context or environmental factors favoring the growth of similar species in these two forest types. Additionally, the shared adaptation of Zingiberaceae plants to the distinct microenvironments within each forest type could contribute to a common set of species well-adjusted to similar ecological conditions. Biogeographical factors, such as geographical proximity or historical influences, might also play a role in the observed Zingiberaceae species diversity among these forests, where plants with similar adaptations may have dispersed or evolved over time. Furthermore, if Zingiberaceae plants in these forests exhibit comparable seed dispersal mechanisms, this could contribute to the presence of similar species across different forest types. Additionally, 54 species are not found in natural habitats but are cultivated. Examples of such cultivation include home gardens, residential areas and shops, with plants grown directly in the ground or in pots, while some species, like Alpinia vittata, Curcuma alismatifolia, Etlingera elatior, Globba sherwoodiana, Kaempferia elegans, and Zingiber purpureum, are also cultivated on a larger scale for commercial purposes.
Upon examination of the natural habitats of 49 Zingiberaceae species within forested areas alongside a geographic map, it was noted that 37 species were identified in the undifferentiated volcanic rocks area (UVR), 34 species in the a limestone area (LSA), and 22 species were present in both the undifferentiated volcanic rocks and limestone areas. Additionally, two species, Curcuma supraneeana and Kaempferia marginata, were uncovered in the colluvial and residual deposits (CRD) bordering the limestone area. Notably, no Zingiberaceae plants were found in the floodplain deposits, natural levee deposits, alluvial deposits, or terrace deposits (Table 1, Figure 10).
6. The Flowering and Fruiting Periods of Zingiberaceae Plants in Saraburi Province
In Saraburi Province, the primary flowering period for most of the 92 Zingiberaceae species occurs between July and September. Another group of these plants’ blooms from February to May, often starting to flower before new leafy shoots. Members of the Zingibereae tribe, e.g., Curcuma aeruginosa, C. mangga, C. rubescens, C. singularis, Kaempferia lopburiensis, K. rotunda, and K. takensis, exhibit the unique feature of producing lateral inflorescences that emerge directly from the rhizome after the winter dormancy. In the Globbeae tribe, two species from the Gagnepainia genus, Gagnepainia godefroyi and G. harmandii, also display this characteristic of having lateral inflorescences grow directly from the rhizome before new shoots emerge. Additionally, one species of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, Curcuma angustifolia, can produce both lateral inflorescences before the leafy shoot and terminal inflorescences. Additionally, some species within the tribe Alpinieae, which usually do not undergo dormancy during the transition from winter to the dry season, e.g., Amomum foetidum, Conamomum pierreanum, and Etlingera araneosa, produce inflorescences during this period. Additionally, some species, such as Alpinia purpurata, Amomum wandokthong, and Etlingera elatior, were observed to produce inflorescences and flower year-round.
During this study in Saraburi Province, out of a total of 103 observed Zingiberaceae species, only 89 species were found to produce fruit. Most of these species typically produce fruit between August and October. This fruiting period generally follows the flowering stage by about one month. Many plants showed fruiting patterns from August to October, which aligns with their flowering period from June to September. Additionally, another group of plants was noted for fruiting from April to July, which corresponds to their usual blooming period from February to May (Figure 11).
Comparing monthly statistics of cumulative rainfall in Saraburi Province during the study period (Figure 12), it was found that February rainfall is crucial in stimulating several species of Zingiberaceae plants that produce inflorescences before the main flowering season. Rainfall in late April, followed by increases in May and June helps replenish moisture and promotes growth for those plants that produce inflorescences after becoming established. Notably, accumulated rainfall in September 2023 was the highest on record, deviating from the 30-year (1991–2020) average rainfall in Thailand due to a tropical storm that month. Despite this, the average monthly rainfall in Saraburi Province from March to August 2023 was lower than the 30-year cumulative average. Additionally, the survey revealed that several Zingiberaceae plant species exhibited delayed flowering compared to their usual timeframe.
7. The Conservation Status of Wild Species of Zingiberaceae Plants in Saraburi Province
This study revealed that particular species in Saraburi Province lack specific conservation categorization by the IUCN. The research unveiled the presence of several species not previously documented in their distribution, highlighting a group of endemic species exclusive to this specific region. Prioritizing the conservation of these endemic species is essential. Notably, Curcuma saraburiensis was identified as a local endemic species, discovered solely in the Phra Phutthabat District of Saraburi Province. Reported as a new species in 2019, it has not been recorded outside of Saraburi Province since then. Additionally, Curcuma supraneeana and Kaempferia saraburiensis. were found to be region-endemic, occurring in both Saraburi and Lopburi provinces in Central Thailand.
Based on the IUCN Red List [16], this study reveals some concerning findings. Three species, namely Curcuma saraburiensis, C. supraneeana, and Kaempferia saraburiensis, are classified as Critically Endangered [CR: C2a(i,ii), D1], and a new species, Kaempferia chaveerachiae is preliminarily proposed to be classified as a Critically Endangered species [CR B2ab(ii,iv,v), C2a(ii), D1]. Additionally, three species, including Curcuma rangsimae, Kaempferia lopburiensis, and Zingiber brachystachys, are categorized as Endangered [EN: C2a(i,ii), D1], highlighting a considerable threat of extinction in their natural environments. These species encounter multiple risks and necessitate urgent conservation measures in their habitats to avert further decline. Fifteen species are categorized as Vulnerable (VU), while 27 species have been evaluated as Least Concern (LC), indicating their current low risk of extinction (Table 1).
Continuous surveillance and committed conservation initiatives are crucial for guaranteeing the long-term survival of these species. Ongoing research and data collection are necessary to identify potential threats and develop effective conservation strategies.
These assessments underscore the urgent necessity for conservation measures to protect species that are at high risk of extinction, ensuring their persistence in their natural habitats. Recognizing their vulnerability is crucial, as they face imminent risks that could lead to extinction if their habitats are disrupted. Such disruptions include urban expansion into forested areas, industrial activities like blasting limestone hills, and the removal of plants from natural habitats for commercial purposes. These actions have direct, detrimental effects on the habitats of these species. Therefore, comprehensive assessments and customized conservation plans are required to preserve and sustainably manage these vital forest resources, prioritizing the protection of unique plant species in Saraburi Province.
In addition, the latest report from the Forest Department for the year 2022 highlights the condition of the forested areas in Saraburi Province. The report indicates that Saraburi Province encompasses a total area of approximately 2,186,994.18 rai, with a forested area covering approximately 534,855.42 rai, equivalent to 24.46 percent of the entire province (Figure 13). Forested regions are present in every district of the province, excluding Ban Mo District, Don Phut District, Nong Don District, and Nong Saeng District. This aligns with the findings of the survey, which did not identify any Zingiberaceae plants in the aforementioned districts of Saraburi Province.
However, this study reveals the presence of numerous endemic and rare plants within the Zingiberaceae family, distributed in forested areas beyond the protected zones of Saraburi Province. Particularly noteworthy are the discoveries in Kaeng Khoi District, where 10 species of endemic plants were identified, while Phra Phutthabat District and Muak Lek District each recorded 8 endemic species. Mueang Saraburi District, Nong Khae District, Wihan Daeng District, and Chaloem Phra Kiat District each documented five endemic species, and Wang Muang District found four endemic plants.
These areas merit consideration for promotion as Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) areas, especially in the upper region of Saraburi Province. This is crucial not only for preserving and promoting the sustainable use of Zingiberaceae plants but also for conserving the overall biodiversity of the area, benefiting various species, such as Capricornis sumatraensis Bechstein. According to the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act of B.E. 1992, this species is classified as 1 of the 15 protected wildlife species and is likely facing a status nearing extinction. Additionally, it is listed in CITES and classified as a Vulnerable species.
8. The Traditional Uses of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province
In the Saraburi Province area, a study of the Zingiberaceae plant family identified a total of 103 species across 14 genera and three tribes. Of these, seven species from six genera were found to have no reported uses: Alpinia macroura, Amomum repoeense, Boesenbergia parvula, Conamomum pierreanum, Kaempferia chaveerachiae, Meistera koenigii, and M. tomrey. Significantly, the genera Cornukaempferia and Hedychium are absent from the natural forests of Saraburi Province, yet they are locally utilized and sourced from other regions within Thailand. Moreover, several Zingiberaceae species have been brought in from different areas for cultivation purposes, providing various advantages. Overall, 96 species from 12 genera and three tribes have documented applications. These applications fall into eight categories: culinary uses, spices, medicinal herbs, ornamental purposes, cut flowers, commercial cultivation, cosmetic uses, and various socio-religious activities (Table 1, Figure 14 and Figure 15). The detailed breakdown is as follows.
8.1. Used as Food
Regarding the utilization as food, 17 species from two tribes and six genera were reported to be used as food. In the tribe Zingibereae, Curcuma leads with 5 species, followed by Zingiber with three species, Kaempferia with two species, and Boesenbergia with one species (Table S3). Within the tribe Alpinieae, there are four species of Alpinia and two species of Etlingera. No species from the tribe Globbeae are utilized for food. The most utilized part is the young inflorescence (53.85%), followed by the pseudostem (30.77%). The rhizome and young leaves each account for 7.69%. No roots, fruits, or seeds are reported to be used as food. The species and their specific parts are frequently consumed fresh or cooked as accompaniments, often served with chili paste for added spiciness. The rhizome of Zingiber officinale, commonly known as ginger, is also favored when pickled and served alongside Isan sausage or pickled sausage. Villagers typically gather these plants from their gardens, such as Boesenbergia rotunda, or from nearby forests, with species like Zingiber thorelii. For larger quantities needed for special events and celebrations, these species may be acquired from the market. Examples of market-sourced species include Alpinia galanga, A. siamensis, Curcuma longa, C. mangga, and Zingiber officinale.
8.2. Used as Spices
Ten species from two tribes and seven genera of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province were reported to be used as spices. The tribe Alpinieae exhibits the highest species diversity, encompassing four genera. Among these, the genus Alpinia stands out as the most diverse. Additionally, the genera Amomum, Etlingera, and Wurfbainia each contribute one species. Among the tribe Zingibereae, four species across three genera are reported, while no species from the tribe Globbeae are used as spices. In Saraburi Province, rhizomes are the predominant part of Zingiberaceae plants used for spicing, comprising 72.73% of the total. Roots, fruits, seeds, and the entire plant each make up 9.09% of the usage (Table 1 and Table S4). The villagers usually harvest these plants from their home gardens, and they may turn to local markets for additional quantities when necessary. Some species, like Wurfbainia uliginosa, can also be collected from the forests.
8.3. Used as Herbal Medicine
In Saraburi Province, herbal medicine utilizes 25 species of Zingiberaceae plants to treat various conditions. Among these, 17 species are classified under the Zingibereae tribe, including 7 spp. of Curcuma, 5 spp. of Kaempferia, 4 spp. of Zingiber, and 1 sp. of Boesenbergia. The Alpinieae tribe contributes eight species, consisting of seven spp. of Alpinia and one sp. of Wurfbainia, while no species from the Globbeae tribe are used for herbal medicinal purposes. Among these species, the genera Alpinia and Curcuma each include seven species, the most of any genera. Next in number are Kaempferia with five species, and Zingiber with four species. Additionally, Boesenbergia and Wurfbainia each contribute one species. Rhizomes are the primary plant parts utilized for medicinal applications, making up 36.51% of the total usage. This is followed by leaves at 19.05%, with roots, pseudostems, and inflorescences each accounting for 12.70%. Fruits and seeds make up 6.35%, while the use of whole plants for herbal medicine is not reported.
In Saraburi Province, Zingiberaceae plants are employed as herbal remedies for a range of symptoms. The gastrointestinal category is particularly prominent, with 20 species of Zingiberaceae plants—constituting 19.80% of those used for medicinal purposes—being frequently utilized.
In the category addressing skin conditions, 15 species from the Zingiberaceae family are used for medicinal purposes, representing 14.85% of the species utilized. In the category related to nutrition and blood, 11 species from the Zingiberaceae family are used for medicinal purposes, accounting for 10.89% of the species employed in this field. Additionally, the antipyretic category includes 10 species of Zingiberaceae plants, which constitutes 9.90% of the total species used for medicinal applications. In the category covering obstetrics, gynaecology, and urinary disorders, 10 species from the Zingiberaceae family are used medicinally, representing 9.90% of the total species employed for this purpose. For musculoskeletal and joint diseases, eight species are utilized, making up about 7.92% of the species used. Similarly, eight species are also employed for respiratory system ailments, comprising approximately 7.92% of the medicinal species in this category. In the cardiovascular category, six species from the Zingiberaceae family are used for medicinal purposes, accounting for approximately 5.94% of the total species. For eye-related treatments, five species are employed, making up around 4.95% of the medicinal plants. Similarly, five species are utilized for addressing poisoning and toxicology, representing approximately 4.95% of the species used. In the context of infections, two species are used, comprising about 1.98% of the medicinal species. Additionally, for central nervous system issues, Zingiber zerumbet is the sole species used, constituting approximately 0.99% of the medicinal plants in this category.
These plants are predominantly utilized in treating various health conditions, with a significant focus on gastrointestinal issues (19.80%), the skin system (14.85%), nourishing nutrition and blood (10.89%), antipyretics (9.90%), obstetrics, gynaecology, and urinary disorders (9.90%), musculoskeletal and joint diseases (7.92%), respiratory issues (7.92%), cardiovascular issues (5.94%), treatment of the eyes (4.95%), poisoning and toxicology cases (4.95%), infections (1.98%), and central nervous system disorders (0.99%), respectively (Figure 16, Table S5).
8.4. Used for Ornamental Purposes
The Zingiberaceae plants are known for their striking presence, enhancing the beauty of tropical landscapes and gardens in Saraburi Province. Their vibrant colors, unique leaf patterns, and distinctive floral displays significantly contribute to the visual appeal of their environments. These plants are often showcased in pots and can be found in home gardens, resorts, hotels, and popular tourist locations, particularly during the rainy season, where they attract both local and tourist admiration. A total of 62 species are used as ornamental plants, belonging to three tribes. This includes six species and three varieties from the Alpinieae tribe, encompassing four spp. of Alpinia, one sp. of Amomum, and 1 sp. of Etlingera with its two varieties. Additionally, 17 species are attributed to the Globbeae tribe, featuring 2 spp. of Gagnepainia and 15 spp. of Globba. The remaining 39 species are categorized within the Zingibereae tribe. This includes 3 species of Cornukaempferia, 16 species of Curcuma, 2 species of Hedychium, 12 species of Kaempferia, and 6 species of Zingiber. Of these, Curcuma is the genus with the greatest number of species used for ornamental purposes. Following it are Globba, Kaempferia, Zingiber, and Alpinia respectively.
In Saraburi Province, species from the Alpinieae tribe are characterized by their upright pseudostems and significant height, frequently growing into large clumps that require ample space. Consequently, these plants might not be ideal for gardens or homes with restricted space. Nevertheless, certain species within this tribe, e.g., Alpinia purpurata and Etlingera elatior varieties, like var. elatior, which produces pink inflorescence, var. alba, which produces white inflorescence, and var. pileng, which produces reddish inflorescence, are noteworthy for their appealing inflorescence. Others, like Alpinia vittata and A. zerumbet, exhibit variegated leaves, making them ideal for both potted and ground planting for home decoration.
In contrast, the Zingibereae tribe is often preferred for its more compact growth habits. Many species within this tribe, particularly from the Curcuma and Kaempferia genera, have attributes that make them ideal for container gardening, which enhances their popularity. Similarly, the Globbeae tribe is also widely cultivated for ornamental purposes in Saraburi Province, benefiting from characteristics that make them suitable for pot cultivation, similar to many species in the Zingibereae tribe. The plants in this tribe produce captivating inflorescence with various color of bracts. Moreover, they seem like an icon of Saraburi Province’s flower especially during the rainy season and the Tak Bat Dok Mai Festival, a unique festival held at Phra Phutthabat Temple. Since their purpose is ornamental, this category of utilization of Zingiberaceae plants uses 100% of the whole plant.
8.5. Used as Cut Flower
Attractive due to their aesthetic appeal, diverse color bracts, and impressive inflorescence durability, numerous plant species within the Zingiberaceae family possess significant potential for cultivating various species, making them highly coveted in the cut flower industry. A total of 25 species are used as ornamental plants, belonging to three tribes. This includes two species from the Alpinieae tribe, encompassing one sp. of Amomum and one sp. of Etlingera with its two varieties. Additionally, all 14 species of the Globbeae tribe belong to the genus Globba. In the Zingibereae tribe, the remaining nine species are from the genus Curcuma. Notably, the genus Globba has the highest number of species used as cut flowers. Since their purpose is to be used as cut flowers, this category of utilization of Zingiberaceae plants uses 100% of the inflorescences/flowers.
A major reason for their popularity is the exceptional longevity of their inflorescences, which can stay fresh for an impressive two to three weeks when displayed in vases. This is exemplified by species such as Alpinia purpurata, showcasing both pink and red variants of bracts, Curcuma alismatifolia, C. longa, C. petiolata, C. thorelii, and Etlingera elatior, along with its variations (var. elatior, var. alba, and var. pileng).
In Saraburi Province, the rainy season aligns with the Tak Bat Dok Mai Festival, which takes place on Buddhist Lent Day. During this festival, flowers are offered in reverence to the Buddha’s footprint and to monks. The floral offerings primarily consist of plants from the Globba genus, along with a selection of species from other genera. Initially, widely distributed species in the area, such as Globba schomburgkii, and Curcuma supraneeana, were prominent choices. However, C. saraburiensis, once also found reported, is now rarely seen in recent years of the festival, potentially due to its rarity, small population, and green inflorescence, not contrasting interestingly with the colorful inflorescences of other species in the Globba genus. A survey revealed that many of these species with endemic status, such as G. colpicola and G. williamsiana, were harvested, and their inflorescences were arranged into bouquets for sale.
As the festival gained more popularity, more vendors joined, leading to increased competition in sales. The demand for flowers with unique and unusual colors grew, prompting many shops to offer a variety of species with distinct hues. Species from different provinces became more prevalent, with various species of the Globba genus, known for their vibrant and eye-catching inflorescences, becoming increasingly accessible. This included species like G. bicolor, and G. rosea. Additionally, some species like G. sherwoodiana, cultivated explicitly for cutting inflorescences for sale, feature large and stunningly white blooms. The harvested inflorescences are bundled in arrangements, with each bundle containing at least three or more inflorescences, the quantity depending on the size of the inflorescence. In cases where the inflorescence is small, several inflorescences are grouped together to make a larger bundle. Furthermore, Globba hybrids are featured in this festival, as evidenced by the photographs in Figure S1, showcasing in the bottom row bundles in Globba spp. inflorescences, and the serrated margin of their leaves are caused by cutting with scissors, not naturally.
8.6. Used for Commercial Cultivation
In Saraburi Province, it was discovered that villagers cultivate Zingiberaceae plants, comprising 29 species distributed among three tribes, Alpinieae, Globbeae, and Zingibereae, for commercial purposes in addition to personal use. The Alpinieae tribe comprises six species, including five spp. of Alpinia and one sp. of Etlingera. The Globbeae tribe consists of 8 spp. of Globba, while the Zingibereae tribe encompasses 15 spp., including Kaempferia with 6 spp., Curcuma and Zingiber each with 4 spp., and 1 sp. of Boesenbergia. The genus Globba takes the lead among these genera, with eight species cultivated for commercial purposes, followed by Kaempferia with 6 spp., Alpinia with 5 spp., Curcuma and Zingiber each with 4 spp., and Boesenbergia and Etlingera each with 1 sp. under commercial cultivation.
Commercially cultivated Zingiberaceae species generally fulfil two main roles. A significant portion (57.14%) of these plants are sold as seedlings or potted specimens, which are then used for planting in different locations. This includes 24 species, namely Alpinia purpurata, A. vittata, A. zerumbet (variegated leaves), Boesenbergia rotunda, B. thorelii, Curcuma alismatifolia, C. angustifolia, Etlingera elatior (all three varieties), Globba colpicola, G. hilaris, G. obscura, G. rosea, G. schomburgkii, G. sherwoodiana, G. thorelii, G. williamsiana, Kaempferia angustifolia, K. elegans, K. galanga, K. gilbertii, K. parviflora, K. rotunda, Zingiber ottensii, Z. purpureum, and Z. zerumbet.
Additionally, the roots, rhizomes, and pseudostems of these plants, which constitute 42.86% of their use, are mainly utilized for culinary and spice purposes. Certain species, such as Alpinia galanga, A. siamensis, Boesenbergia rotunda, Curcuma longa, and C. mangga, have become prominent in commercial cultivation due to their frequent use in cooking.
In commercial cultivation, 15 species—accounting for 35.71% of those grown commercially—are primarily cultivated for their rhizomes. These include Alpinia galanga, A. siamensis, Boesenbergia rotunda, Curcuma alismatifolia, C. angustifolia, C. longa, C. mangga, Globba colpicola, G. schomburgkii, G. sherwoodiana, Kaempferia parviflora, K. rotunda, Zingiber officinale, Z. purpureum, and Z. zerumbet. Additionally, Alpinia galanga and A. siamensis are also grown for their pseudostems, which make up 4.76% of commercial cultivation. Boesenbergia rotunda stands out, as it is cultivated for both its rhizomes and tuberous roots, commonly known as finger roots, contributing to approximately 2.38% of commercial cultivation. This species is notable for providing both roots and rhizomes used in spices and cooking.
8.7. Used as Cosmetics
Five Zingiberaceae plant species are instrumental in cosmetics production in Saraburi Province. Most of these species, such as Curcuma longa, Kaempferia parviflora, Zingiber officinale, and Z. purpureum, are members of the tribe Zingibereae. Additionally, one species from the tribe Globbeae, Globba schomburgkii, is also involved in cosmetics production. The rhizomes of these plants are integral to various cosmetic products. They are used in a wide array of items, including bar soaps, liquid bath soaps, shampoos, and skincare formulations.
Unlike species from other tribes, none of the plants from the tribe Alpinieae are used in cosmetics or included in cosmetic products within Saraburi Province. For the species listed, only the rhizomes are utilized for cosmetic applications, representing the full 100% of the plant material used. This highlights the importance and concentration of beneficial properties contained in the rhizomes of these species.
8.8. Used in Rituals and Various Socio-Religious Activities
A significant finding in Saraburi Province revealed 56 plant species involved in ceremonies and different socio-religious practices. These species are categorized into nine genera across three tribes: Alpinieae, Globbeae, and Zingibereae. The Alpinieae tribe included three species, comprising Alpinia with two spp. and Amomum with one sp. The Globbeae tribe encompassed 16 species, comprising Gagnepainia with 2 spp. and Globba with 14 spp. The Zingibereae tribe, the most abundant, comprised 37 species, including Boesenbergia with 4 spp., Curcuma with 18 spp., Hedychium with 1 sp., Kaempferia with 11 spp., and Zingiber with 3 spp.
The tribe Zingibereae showed the greatest diversity in species. The genus Curcuma led with 18 species, followed by Globba with 14 species, Kaempferia with 11, Boesenbergia with 4, and Zingiber with 3. Additionally, Alpinia and Gagnepainia each included two species, while Amomum and Hedychium each had one species represented.
The most commonly observed species was Amomum wandokthong, typically found in potted arrangements, believed to enhance the appeal for most cultivators. These potted plants generally are positioned in front of establishments, aiming to attract customers. Moreover, Curcuma phrayawan, C. puangpeniae, and C. rubescens were discovered being grown both in pots and directly in the soil. It is believed that these plants offer protection from various threats, rendering both the grower and their home safeguarded. They also dispel superstitions and ward off malevolent spirits. Kaempferia rotunda L. was observed growing in pots, where it is thought to improve trading success, attract prosperity, and bring good fortune. Simultaneously, it empowers individuals with a sense of awe and discourages bullying. These pots are commonly positioned or planted in front of homes or buildings.
These plants are valued for their unique attributes and pleasant scents, playing a crucial role in spiritual and cultural activities. In Thailand, they are referred to as “Wan”, a term used as a prefix to denote plants involved in rituals and socio-religious activities. Historical Thai texts provide detailed accounts of these plants, outlining their properties and uses. Several species from the Zingiberaceae family are categorized as Wan and are utilized in various rituals and cultural activities. They are believed to offer benefits such as enhancing trade success, attracting prosperity, bestowing charm and kindness, providing protection, counteracting toxins, and serving as herbal remedies.
Primarily, the whole plant was regarded as sacred and cultivated as a symbol of good fortune, representing 43 species (42.16% of plant parts used in rituals and socio-religious activities). Additionally, the inflorescences and flowers from 36 species (35.29% of plant parts used) were soaked in sandalwood oil and carried around. This custom is thought to increase charm, kindness, and social appeal.
Additionally, the rhizomes of these plants were used to create amulets and sacred artifacts. Among the 56 species used in ceremonies and cultural beliefs, 23 species (22.55% of plant parts used) were categorized within the “Wan 108 species” group. In this context, their rhizomes served as materials for making these sacred objects.
Overall, 97 species across three tribes and 12 genera were identified, each with reported uses spanning eight different categories: food, spices, herbal medicine, ornamental purposes, cut flowers, commercial cultivation, cosmetics, and rituals and socio-religious activities.
The tribe Alpinieae has the highest number of species used for medicinal purposes, totaling eight species, more than any other use category. It is followed by six species each for food, spices, and commercial cultivation, three species for rituals and socio-religious activities, and two species used as cut flowers. There are no recorded uses for cosmetics. Conversely, the tribe Globbeae shows the greatest diversity in species used as ornamental plants, with 17 species. This is followed by 16 species used in rituals and socio-religious activities, 14 species as cut flowers, 8 species for commercial cultivation, and 1 species for cosmetics. There are no recorded uses for food, spices, or herbal medicine.
Plants in the tribe Zingibereae are utilized across all categories and have the highest number of species used as ornamental plants, totaling 39 species. This is followed by 37 species used in rituals and various socio-religious activities, 17 species as herbal medicine, 15 species for commercial cultivation, 11 species as food, 9 species as cut flowers, and 4 species each for spices and cosmetics ingredients.
Results indicate that among the three tribes, Zingibereae exhibits the highest species diversity, particularly in its utilization for food, herbal medicine, ornamental purposes, commercial cultivation, cosmetics, and in various rituals and socio-religious activities. On the other hand, the Globbeae tribe demonstrates the highest species diversity when it comes to being used as cut flowers. Meanwhile, the Alpinieae tribe stands out for its highest diversity in applications as spices. These findings underscore the multifaceted roles and varied utility of Zingiberaceae species within each tribe, emphasizing their significance in different domains ranging from daily life practices to economic activities (radar charts in Figure 17).
In Saraburi Province, the most commonly used parts of Zingiberaceae are the entire plant, which represents 38.46% of all uses. This is followed by inflorescences/flowers at 26.24%, rhizomes at 18.55%, leaves at 6.33%, pseudostems at 4.98%, roots at 3.62%, and fruits/seeds at 1.81% (as shown in the donut charts in Figure 17).
The presence of introduced species not native to Thailand reveals a fascinating tapestry of utility across different categories in this study. Notably, Alpinia purpurata. stands out for its roles in cut flower arrangements and commercial cultivation as an ornamental plant. Similarly, Alpinia vittata demonstrates versatility, contributing to herbal medicine, commercial cultivation as an ornamental plant, and participating in rituals. The multifaceted Curcuma longa finds application in various aspects of daily life, serving as food, spices, herbal medicine, cut flowers, in commercial cultivation, and even in cosmetics. C. mangga plays a pivotal role in food, spices, herbal medicine, and commercial cultivations. C. myanmarensis, on the other hand, is appreciated for its use as a cut flower and ornamental plant. Kaempferia gilbertii is engaged in commercial cultivation and in rituals and serves as an ornamental plant. The widely recognized Zingiber officinale contributes to food, spices, herbal medicine, commercial cultivation, and as a cosmetic ingredient. Zingiber ottensii has a diverse role, being utilized in herbal medicine, commercial cultivation, rituals, and as an ornamental plant. Lastly, Zingiber purpureum Roscoe finds application in herbal medicine, commercial cultivation, rituals, and as a cosmetic ingredient. This array of introduced species underscores their adaptability and significance in various facets of Thai culture and practices.
9. Discovery of a New Species to Science
In our study’s results, we unveil the discovery of a previously undocumented species within the genus Kaempferia, belonging to the subgenus Kaempferia. Through detailed examination, this specimen was determined to be unique, differing significantly from any known species. As a result, it has been classified as a novel addition to scientific knowledge. Below, we present a comprehensive description of this newly identified species, shedding light on its distinctive characteristics and marking a significant contribution to botanical science.
9.1. Taxonomic Treatments
Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma sp. nov. (Figure 18 and Figure 19, Table 2)
Diagnosis: Diagnosis: The new species resembles Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker [21,22] but distinguishes itself by a rhizome this is sympodial and internally yellow (vs. K. parviflora being moniliform, dark purple to brown); a horizontal leaf position (vs. erect); a shorter leaf sheath (up to 2 cm vs. c. 6 cm); a single leaf during anthesis (vs. single to several); a leaf base this is cordate with a pubescent upper surface (vs. subcordate, glabrous); inflorescence formed by a tightly rolled outermost bract (vs. involucrate structure); a non-reflexed bract tip (vs. outward reflexed); a single flower blooming at a time (vs. one to two); and a flattened, fan-shaped stigma (vs. cup-shaped).
Type: Thailand, Central, Saraburi Province, Phra Phutthabat District, altitude c. 167 m above sea level, Boonma SB0074, 27 June 2023 (holotype FOF!, isotype MSU!, Brio Botanical Research Garden (BBRG)).
Description: A perennial herb with a leafy shoot 4.0–5.0 cm tall. the leaf extends horizontally curved near the ground (the basal part of the leaf blade angles upwards along the direction of the petiole, gradually curving downwards towards the ground from the middle to the tip of the leaf, with the tip pointed downwards to the ground) following the orientation of the old sympodial rhizomes. The rhizomes are ovoid to subglobose, sympodial, 0.8–1.0 × 0.7–0.9 cm, brown externally, and yellowish internally. The storage roots exhibit a long conical shape, larger at the base and gradually tapering towards the tip with fibrous roots. The pseudostem is erect and 2–3 cm tall. The bladeless sheath is 5.0–7.0 cm long and green with a reddish tinge at the distal part, with sparse hairs. The leaf sheath is usually embedded in the ground with a measurement up to 2.0 cm long, and it is white to very pale green with a margin that is pale green. The petiole is 2.0–3.0 cm long, canaliculate, pale green, with sparse hairs. The ligule is bilobed, truncate, and inconspicuous. There is leaf only one leaf at anthesis. The lamina is ovate to narrowly elliptic, 9.0–16.0 × 5.0–8.0 cm, with an apex that is acute with slightly mucronate tip with a base that is cordate. The young leaf is pale green and gradually darkens as it matures, eventually becoming green with varying degrees of dark green to almost black patterns on the adaxial surface; the midrib of the leaf is green; the margin is slightly undulate and pale green with white hyaline; and the abaxial surface is pale green and pubescent on both surfaces. The inflorescence is terminal, inverted conical, slender, erect, 5.0–5.6 cm long, and 0.75–0.82 cm in diameter; the peduncle is short, glabrous, 2.0–3.0 cm long, 0.3–0.4 cm in diameter, and most of the length is covered by the leaf sheath and leafless sheath. The bract is triangular–lanceolate, 3.40–5.60 × 1.00–1.65 cm (the outermost bracts are the largest), tightly rolled into a slender conical tube, with only a small hole through which the flower can emerge for blooming, apex acute, green, gradually to paler green at the base, and glabrous. Bracteoles are narrowly lanceolate, 1.4–2.7 × 0.3–0.5 cm (outermost bracteoles largest), membranous, white, and glabrous. The flowers are five to eight in number, white, and exerted from bracts; have staminodes nearly perpendicular to the labellum, not lying in the same plane; and have a single flower that blooms each day and last a single day. The calyx is tubular, 2.5–3.0 cm long, and white, with an apex that is acute and a unilateral incision 8–9 mm long, and it is glabrous. The floral tube is 4.5–4.9 cm long, white, and glabrous; the dorsal corolla lobe is oblong, 1.8–2.0 × 0.2–0.25 cm, with an apex that is acuminate, hooded, white, glabrous; lateral corolla lobes oblong, 1.6–1.7 × 0.2–0.25 cm, apex acuminate, white, and glabrous. The labellum is obovate, 1.5–1.6 × 1.2–1.3 cm, emarginate, with an incision c. 2.0 mm long, and each lobe is retuse, purple, gradually paling towards the distal part, with white at the base and extending along the mid-lobe for about 1/3 of its length. Lateral staminodes are oblanceolate, 1.6–1.7 × 0.3–0.4 cm, and white; the apex is acute, the margin is entire, and it is glabrous. There is one stamen; its filament is 0.55–0.60 mm long, c. 0.7 mm wide, and glabrous. The anther is c. 3.6 mm long (including the crest), c. 1.3 mm wide, and white; the anther-crest is broadly orbiculate, c. 1.3 × 2.0 mm, with an apex that is subacute to rounded and white; and the anther-thecae are c. 2.4 mm long. The ovary is 3.5–4.0 × 1.5–2.0 mm, pilose, and white; the placentation is axile, and the ovules are many; there are two epigynous glands, c. 8.0 mm long; the stigma is fan-shaped and flattened, c. 0.9 mm in length (measured in the front view), c. 0.8 mm in width (measured in the front view), c. 0.2 mm thick (measured in the side view), yellowish, and ciliate. The fruit is ellipsoid, 14.6–16.5 × 5.0–6.0 mm, and pale green, becoming gradually paler at the base. The seed is ovoid, 3–4 × c. 2.5 mm, very pale brown with dark brown patterns, and covered with white arils.
Note: The old rhizomes can generate a single new shoot. Once the new shoot produces an inflorescence, the lateral buds of the new rhizome may or may not develop into shoots capable of blooming again. Typically, the arrangement of the rhizome follows the direction of the previous one. During our exploration, the longest row of sympodial rhizomes discovered had a maximum of eight rhizomes in a sympodial arrangement.
Vernacular name: “Proh Ajarn Mham”. The term “Proh” is a vernacular Thai name commonly used for species within the genus Kaempferia. The term “Ajarn Mham” is derived from the nickname of Prof. Dr. Arunrat Chaveerach in honor of her contributions to the taxonomy field in Thailand.
Etymology: The specific epithet “chaveerachiae” is named in honor of Prof. Dr. Arunrat Chaveerach, acknowledging her significant impact and dedication to the field of botanical sciences. This naming recognizes her outstanding contributions to botany, including plant morphology, palynology, plant systematics, and plant and animal molecular systematics. She is also celebrated for her extensive research and numerous publications on new species within the Zingiberaceae family in Thailand.
Distribution: Currently, the species is endemic to Thailand; Central, Saraburi Province, Phra Phutthabat District.
Ecology: The natural habitat of this species is in limestone mountain areas, thriving within shady spots of deciduous forest in black sandy loam soil rich in humus, mixed with limestone rock and gray stone. This species has been discovered growing alongside Scindapsus officinalis (Roxb.) Schott and in nearby areas; Boesenbergia collinsii Mood & L.M.Prince, and Curcuma saraburiensis Boonma & Saensouk have also been observed. Phenology: Flowering from late May to July; anthesis time in the morning.
Utilization: This species, though not previously reported in use and not found cultivated in the study area, has potential as an ornamental pot plant. However, due to the current population of fewer than 100 mature plants, careful propagation is essential to ensure its survival and prevent removal from its natural habitat.
Conservation status: This newly discovered species was found in the Phra Phutthabat District, Saraburi Province, Central Thailand, in 2023. Current data suggest that only one population exists within an area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 1 km2, with fewer than 100 mature individuals observed in its natural habitat. Additionally, the habitat where the species was discovered is non-protected forestland adjacent to cassava plantations, increasing the risk of encroachment on the forest edge. This proximity raises concerns about potential direct impacts on the species in the near future. Therefore, based on the guidelines outlined in the IUCN Red List categories and criteria version 16 (March 2024), we preliminarily propose classifying this species as Critically Endangered [CR B2ab(ii,iv,v), C2a(ii), D1]. This classification aims to prioritize conservation efforts until further research can provide more clarity on its distribution ranges and population.
10. Discussion
The findings of this research highlight the rich diversity of the Zingiberaceae family in Saraburi Province. Our study identifies representatives from two subfamilies and three tribes, offering a comprehensive overview of species distribution across these tribes and genera, and describes a new species, Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma. Additionally, 23 species are newly reported for distribution in Saraburi Province. Understanding species distribution at the tribal and genus levels is crucial for conservation efforts and further botanical research.
These results match observations from Boonma et al. [23] in Nakhon Nayok Province, which borders Southern Saraburi Province. In that study, the Zingibereae tribe was noted for having the highest species diversity, followed by the Alpinieae and Globbeae tribes, respectively. Moreover, the Curcuma genus displayed greater species diversity compared to other genera, followed by Kaempferia, Globba, Zingiber, and Alpinia. Additionally, the intriguing aspect lies in the shared species diversity between Saraburi and Nakhon Nayok provinces, emphasizing a contiguous botanical landscape. This regional synergy in species distribution underscores the interconnected nature of these provinces and highlights the importance of collaborative conservation efforts spanning provincial boundaries.
The distribution analysis reveals exciting patterns across different districts of Saraburi Province. Categorization into wild, cultivated, and both found in the wild and cultivated helps discern the prevalence of Zingiberaceae species in natural habitats and human-influenced environments. The varying numbers of species in each district indicate diverse ecological conditions and land use patterns. Districts such as Phra Phutthabat and Kaeng Khoi stand out for hosting the highest diversity, while others, primarily plains like Sao Hai, Nong Don, and Ban Mo, exhibit limited wild species due to unsuitable landscapes. This finding is consistent with the observations in Ongkharak district, where species were only observed in cultivation and not in the forest of Nakhon Nayok Province [23].
At the genus level, this study unveils distinct patterns of distribution between natural habitats and cultivation. The genera Globba, Curcuma, and Kaempferia show significant diversity in both forested and cultivated areas. This information is crucial for understanding the adaptability and preferences of these genera, guiding conservation strategies and potential cultivation efforts. The absence of certain genera in either habitat, such as Cornukaempferia and Hedychium in the forest, adds depth to our understanding of their ecological requirements, and this also corresponds to Boonma et al. [23] as well.
The dendrogram offers insights into the similarity of the plants in the Zingiberaceae family across different districts. The clustering pattern aligns with geographical proximity, emphasizing the influence of shared landscapes and environmental factors on species composition. The interconnectedness of districts like Phra Phutthabat, Chaloem Phra Kiat, and Wang Muang is reflected in the clustering, providing a valuable perspective for regional conservation planning.
While the identification of thirteen endemic species in Saraburi Province significantly contributes to our understanding of the unique plant life in this region, the presence of endemic species in particular regions highlight the distinctive plant diversity of these areas, as also presented by other studies [23,24,25,26,27].
The DEI offers a quantitative measure, highlighting Phra Phutthabat District and Chaloem Phra Kiat District as particularly significant for conservation efforts. The absence of endemic species in certain districts underscores the need for targeted conservation initiatives and the importance of understanding local ecological contexts. The finding that certain species endemic to Thailand are being cultivated outside their natural habitats adds complexity to conservation strategies. Understanding the reasons behind this disparity, such as specific cultivation practices or adaptations, is also essential for comprehensive conservation planning.
The ecological insights into the habitat preferences of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province provide crucial information for understanding the distribution and environmental requirements of these species, shedding light on both species found in the natural habitat and species observed in cultivation and offering a comprehensive perspective on the ecology of Zingiberaceae in the region. In wild plant habitats, various forest types, with the dry evergreen forest dominating, align with the general ecological characteristics of many Zingiberaceae species, indicating adaptation to drier conditions. The prevalence of species in mixed deciduous forests and deciduous forests suggests a diverse range of ecological niches. In cultivated habitats, the adaptability and horticultural significance of Zingiberaceae are underscored by their cultivation in home gardens, shops, and residential areas for various purposes, ranging from pot cultivation to large-scale commercial plots, emphasizing the economic and ornamental value of specific species. The examination of natural habitats through geographic mapping provides a spatial context, revealing the significance of undifferentiated volcanic rocks (UVR) and limestone areas (LSA) in influencing distribution, while the absence of Zingiberaceae in other deposits suggests specific ecological requirements and limitations. The correlation between species distribution and geological features highlights the ecological affinities of Zingiberaceae plants with different soil types, crucial for predicting potential habitat shifts in response to environmental changes and guiding conservation efforts.
The comprehensive study on the conservation status of wild Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province provides valuable insights into the diverse flora of this region. Notably, the absence of specific IUCN conservation categorizations for certain species underscores the need for focused conservation efforts. The concerning IUCN assessments, designating four species as Critically Endangered and three as Endangered, emphasize the imminent threat of extinction these species face. The identification of 15 Vulnerable species, coupled with the evaluation of 27 as Least Concern, offers a nuanced perspective on the conservation landscape. Although the latter group faces relatively low extinction risk, continuous monitoring and focused conservation efforts are essential. The juxtaposition of these findings with the Forest Department’s report on Saraburi Province’s forested areas further emphasizes the need for strategic conservation planning. The identification of endemic and rare Zingiberaceae plants in specific districts highlights the potential for Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs). These areas could play a crucial role in not only preserving Zingiberaceae plants but also safeguarding overall biodiversity, including species like Capricornis sumatraensis, facing a status nearing extinction. This study underscores the urgency of tailored conservation initiatives to ensure the sustained existence of these remarkable plant species in Saraburi Province, contributing to the broader goal of preserving the region’s invaluable forest resources.
The investigation into the flowering and fruiting periods of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province identifies two primary flowering periods, July to September and February to May, aligning with common tropical patterns influenced by environmental cues like rainfall. Unique lateral inflorescences emerging directly from the rhizome indicate specific environmental adaptations. Some Alpinieae tribe species exhibit year-round flowering without typical winter dormancy, emphasizing adaptability to diverse conditions. The fruiting stage, peaking from August to October, closely follows flowering, ensuring synchronized seed production and dispersal. Notably, rainfall, especially in February, significantly influences flowering, while anomalies, like lower-than-average monthly rainfall in 2023, lead to delayed flowering, highlighting the sensitivity of Zingiberaceae plants to climatic variations. This comprehensive understanding of phenological patterns contributes to elucidating reproductive strategies and ecological adaptations of these plant species.
These research findings reveal the intricate relationship between Zingiberaceae species and the diverse needs of the Saraburi Province community. The adaptability and multifunctionality of the tribe Zingibereae exemplify the remarkable diversity within this plant family, spanning various utilizations. The Alpinieae tribe is notable for its medicinal applications, emphasizing its potential contributions to traditional healthcare practices. The Globbeae tribe stands out for its diverse uses as ornamental plants and cut flowers, highlighting its members aesthetic appeal and cultural significance. The nuanced interplay between tribes within Zingibereae showcases their significance in food, herbal medicine, ornamental purposes, commercial cultivation, cosmetics, and rituals. This research underscores the need to recognize and preserve the multifaceted roles of these plants for sustaining local traditions, fostering economic activities, and promoting biodiversity conservation.
In line with traditional applications, our findings echo previous studies in Thailand [23,24,25,26,27] that highlighted the predominant utilization of Zingiberaceae plants for medicinal purposes, culinary uses (including spices), ornamental aesthetics, and ritualistic practices. Moreover, our observations align with the outcomes reported by Inta et al. [28], indicating that among ethnic groups, Zingiberaceae species were primarily employed for food and medicinal purposes in Mae Hong Son Province. Certain species’ used reports are also associated with the information on utilizing Zingiberaceae plants previously reported by Sirirugsa [29] and Khanatham [30].
However, a notable distinction exists in our study conducted in Saraburi Province, where there was no reported usage of Zingiberaceae plants for fabric dye, as observed in Junsongduang et al. [31]. Despite these variations, our study harmonizes with the overarching theme found in all related research on the diversity and utilization of Zingiberaceae plants. It underscores the importance of promoting sustainable practices, conservation efforts, and the preservation of local wisdom within each distinct study area.
This aligns with the research by Kantasrila et al. [32], which examined traditional plant remedies for musculoskeletal disorders among the Skaw Karen people in Thailand and the research by Silalahi et al. [33], which was a study in North Sumatera, Indonesia. Our study also finds that the medicinal uses of Zingiberaceae plants, such as Alpinia galanga, Curcuma longa, and Zingiber officinale, are consistent with those reported in their works.
Debnath and Vijayan’s study in India [34] highlights the remarkable diversity of 230 Zingiberaceae species, with Hedychium being the most diverse, followed by Zingiber, Curcuma, and Globba. This pattern parallels the findings in Saraburi Province, Thailand, where 103 species were identified, including the novel Kaempferia chaveerachiae. Although the overall species count in Saraburi is lower, the discovery of 23 newly reported species and 14 endemic species underscores the significance of localized biodiversity studies. Both studies emphasize the critical need for conservation, particularly in the face of habitat loss driven by urban development. While Debnath and Vijayan’s work highlights the threat to numerous species in India, our research similarly stresses the importance of targeted conservation strategies in Saraburi to protect its unique flora and ecosystems.
The medicinally and economically important Zingiberaceae species face several significant threats that necessitate comprehensive conservation strategies. Habitat destruction due to urban expansion and industrial activities, such as the blasting of limestone hills, poses a severe risk to these plants by diminishing their natural environments. Additionally, overexploitation through commercial harvesting and collection for trade can lead to the unsustainable depletion of populations. Climate change further exacerbates these threats, as shifting temperature and rainfall patterns, along with increased occurrences of extreme weather events, can disrupt the delicate balance needed for these species to thrive [35,36]. Invasive species also present a challenge by competing for resources and potentially outcompeting native Zingiberaceae. Pollution from chemicals used in agriculture or industry can further harm both the plants and their habitats.
To address these threats, several conservation strategies are crucial. Establishing and effectively managing protected areas, as well as promoting Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) in critical regions, can help safeguard essential habitats. Implementing sustainable harvesting practices and developing cultivation programs for Zingiberaceae species can reduce the pressure on wild populations. Habitat restoration efforts, including reforestation and management of invasive species, are vital for supporting plant recovery. Additionally, adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change should be developed, with ongoing research to adjust conservation approaches as needed. Public awareness and education are also important, engaging local communities and promoting the ecological and economic value of these plants. Strengthening legal frameworks and ensuring the enforcement of environmental protection laws are necessary to bolster these conservation efforts. By addressing these threats with targeted actions, we can enhance the long-term survival and sustainability of Zingiberaceae species.
11. Conclusions
This research conducted in Saraburi Province on the Zingiberaceae family reveals a rich botanical landscape characterized by two subfamilies and three tribes, with the Alpinieae tribe, particularly the genus Alpinia, standing out for its diversity. The shared species between Saraburi and neighboring provinces highlight a continuous botanical landscape, underscoring the need for collaborative conservation efforts. District-level analysis shows that species distribution varies, with higher diversity in districts with suitable landscapes and limited species in plains. Understanding these patterns is crucial for effective conservation and cultivation strategies. The UPGMA cluster analysis illustrates how shared landscapes influence species composition, aiding regional conservation planning. The identification of thirteen endemic species and the District Endemism Index signals the need for focused conservation, with Phra Phutthabat and Chaloem Phra Kiat districts being particularly significant. Insights into habitat preferences and conservation status highlight the urgency for targeted initiatives, especially for critically endangered species. This study’s findings on phenology contribute to understanding reproductive strategies and ecological adaptations, while the multifunctionality of Zingiberaceae plants supports local traditions, economic activities, and biodiversity conservation.
Future research should focus on long-term monitoring to track changes in species distribution and conservation status. Expanding collaborative efforts across neighboring provinces and implementing community-based initiatives will enhance the protection of shared species and habitats and increase public awareness of conservation efforts.
Supplementary Materials
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/horticulturae10090934/s1, Figure S1: Bundles of inflorescences of Globba spp. and Curcuma spp. plants in bottles/buckets are available for purchase along the roadside during the Tak Bat Dok Mai Festival, Phra Phutthabat Temple in Phra Phutthabat District, Saraburi Province, Thailand. 1 August 2023 (Photographs by Thawatphong Boonma); Table S1: Key to genera of Saraburi’s Zingiberaceae plants; Table S2: Key to species of Saraburi’s Zingiberaceae plants; Table S3: Species diversity and methods of utilizing Zingiberaceae plants as food in Saraburi Province; Table S4: Species diversity and methods of utilizing Zingiberaceae plants as spices in Saraburi Province; Table S5: Diversity of Zingiberaceae species found in Saraburi Province that are used as herbal medicine.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, T.B., S.S. and P.S.; methodology, T.B., S.S. and P.S.; software, T.B.; validation, T.B., S.S. and P.S.; formal analysis, T.B., S.S. and P.S.; investigation, T.B.; resources, T.B.; data curation, T.B.; writing—original draft preparation, T.B.; writing—review and editing, T.B., S.S. and P.S.; visualization, T.B.; supervision, S.S. and P.S.; project administration, T.B., S.S. and P.S.; funding acquisition, S.S. and T.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research project was financially supported by Mahasarakham University.
Data Availability Statement
Data is contained within the article and Supplementary Materials.
Acknowledgments
We are profoundly grateful to the Walai Rukhavej Botanical Research Institute, Mahasarakham University, for providing laboratory facilities and access to a light microscope. The authors extend their sincere thanks to Samai Boonma, Sayan Boonma, Tomoki Sando and to all villagers for their invaluable support during the field trips conducted for this project. We also wish to express our gratitude to the villagers of Saraburi Province for their generous assistance and for providing crucial information on the traditional utilization of ginger plants. Finally, our thanks go to the curators of all the herbaria we visited for their kind cooperation.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
Geographical position of the investigated area Saraburi province, Central Thailand, the province is divided by administrative area into 13 districts (Map created with “Pixelmator Pro” program ver. 3.4.3, designed by T. Boonma).
Figure 1.
Geographical position of the investigated area Saraburi province, Central Thailand, the province is divided by administrative area into 13 districts (Map created with “Pixelmator Pro” program ver. 3.4.3, designed by T. Boonma).
Figure 2.
Correlation between DEI percentage values and shades of red on the map.
Figure 3.
The number of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province is grouped by genus and tribes represented by different colors.
Figure 3.
The number of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province is grouped by genus and tribes represented by different colors.
Figure 4.
Distribution of Zingiberaceae species in Saraburi Province across district boundaries, with varying color intensities used to represent species diversity: (A). species diversity, (B). diversity of species found in the wild, (C). diversity of species found both situations, (D). diversity of species found in cultivation.
Figure 4.
Distribution of Zingiberaceae species in Saraburi Province across district boundaries, with varying color intensities used to represent species diversity: (A). species diversity, (B). diversity of species found in the wild, (C). diversity of species found both situations, (D). diversity of species found in cultivation.
Figure 5.
Species diversity of Zingiberaceae, detailing the number of species observed in the forest (green bars), those cultivated (purplish bars), and those present in both situations (pale green bars) in Saraburi Province, categorized by genus.
Figure 5.
Species diversity of Zingiberaceae, detailing the number of species observed in the forest (green bars), those cultivated (purplish bars), and those present in both situations (pale green bars) in Saraburi Province, categorized by genus.
Figure 6.
UPGMA dendrogram depicting the clustering of similarities of Zingiberaceae species found exclusively in forested areas across various districts in Saraburi Province.
Figure 6.
UPGMA dendrogram depicting the clustering of similarities of Zingiberaceae species found exclusively in forested areas across various districts in Saraburi Province.
Figure 7.
Some endemic species of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province: (A) Boesenbergia collinsii, (B) Globba colpicola, (C) G. obscura, (D) G. williamsiana, (E) Curcuma rangsimae, (F) C. supraneeana, (G) C. saraburiensis, (H) Globba chrysochila, (I) G. xantholeuca, (J) Kaempferia lopburiensis, (K) K. nigrifolia, (L) K. saraburiensis, and (M) Zingiber brachystachys: Photographs by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 7.
Some endemic species of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province: (A) Boesenbergia collinsii, (B) Globba colpicola, (C) G. obscura, (D) G. williamsiana, (E) Curcuma rangsimae, (F) C. supraneeana, (G) C. saraburiensis, (H) Globba chrysochila, (I) G. xantholeuca, (J) Kaempferia lopburiensis, (K) K. nigrifolia, (L) K. saraburiensis, and (M) Zingiber brachystachys: Photographs by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 8.
Comparison of DEI of each district and a map of Saraburi Province that delineates its districts, showcasing varying intensities of color to represent the DEI within each district.
Figure 8.
Comparison of DEI of each district and a map of Saraburi Province that delineates its districts, showcasing varying intensities of color to represent the DEI within each district.
Figure 9.
UPGMA cluster analysis dendrogram illustrating Zingiberaceae species distribution across different forest types in Saraburi Province.
Figure 9.
UPGMA cluster analysis dendrogram illustrating Zingiberaceae species distribution across different forest types in Saraburi Province.
Figure 10.
Geological map of Saraburi Province (applied from the geological map of Saraburi Province by the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand, 2007). Designed and edited by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 10.
Geological map of Saraburi Province (applied from the geological map of Saraburi Province by the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand, 2007). Designed and edited by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 11.
Flowering and fruiting periods of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province, recorded monthly from October 2022 to November 2023.
Figure 11.
Flowering and fruiting periods of Zingiberaceae plants in Saraburi Province, recorded monthly from October 2022 to November 2023.
Figure 12.
Monthly accumulated rainfall of Saraburi Province (monthly from October 2022 to November 2023) based on data from https://data.hii.or.th (accessed on 1 May 2024).
Figure 12.
Monthly accumulated rainfall of Saraburi Province (monthly from October 2022 to November 2023) based on data from https://data.hii.or.th (accessed on 1 May 2024).
Figure 13.
The forest map of Saraburi Province shows national park forests in pink, national reserved forests in light green, and non-protected forests in dark green. Designed and edited in Pixelmator Pro Version 3.4.3 by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 13.
The forest map of Saraburi Province shows national park forests in pink, national reserved forests in light green, and non-protected forests in dark green. Designed and edited in Pixelmator Pro Version 3.4.3 by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 14.
Diversity of Zingiberaceae species at the genus level and their uses in eight categories of utilization purposes in Saraburi Province.
Figure 14.
Diversity of Zingiberaceae species at the genus level and their uses in eight categories of utilization purposes in Saraburi Province.
Figure 15.
Percentage of the parts used of Zingiberaceae plants in each category of utilization purposes in Saraburi Province.
Figure 15.
Percentage of the parts used of Zingiberaceae plants in each category of utilization purposes in Saraburi Province.
Figure 16.
Proportion of symptom groups treated using Zingiberaceae plants as herbal medicine in Saraburi Province.
Figure 16.
Proportion of symptom groups treated using Zingiberaceae plants as herbal medicine in Saraburi Province.
Figure 17.
Radar charts comparing the different categories of use for each tribe of Zingiberaceae plants, along with donut charts showing the parts of Zingiberaceae plants utilized in Saraburi Province.
Figure 17.
Radar charts comparing the different categories of use for each tribe of Zingiberaceae plants, along with donut charts showing the parts of Zingiberaceae plants utilized in Saraburi Province.
Figure 18.
Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma: (A) natural habitat, (B) front view of flower, (C) semi side view of inflorescence with flower, (D) plants with leaves displaying varying degrees of dark green to almost black patterns on the adaxial surface. Photographs by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 18.
Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma: (A) natural habitat, (B) front view of flower, (C) semi side view of inflorescence with flower, (D) plants with leaves displaying varying degrees of dark green to almost black patterns on the adaxial surface. Photographs by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 19.
Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma: (A) side view of flower, (B) semi side view and front view of anther, (C) dorsal corolla lobe, (D) lateral corolla lobes, (E) bracteole, (F) bract, (G) habit, (H) seed with aril, (I) ovary with epigynous glands, (J) fruit with calyx: Drawn by Thawatphong Boonma.
Figure 19.
Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma: (A) side view of flower, (B) semi side view and front view of anther, (C) dorsal corolla lobe, (D) lateral corolla lobes, (E) bracteole, (F) bract, (G) habit, (H) seed with aril, (I) ovary with epigynous glands, (J) fruit with calyx: Drawn by Thawatphong Boonma.
Table 1.
Diversity of Zingiberaceae species found in Saraburi Province, and their distribution, ecology, phenology, utilization, cultural importance value and conservation status.
Table 1.
Diversity of Zingiberaceae species found in Saraburi Province, and their distribution, ecology, phenology, utilization, cultural importance value and conservation status.
| No | Species | Vernacular Name | Distribution Status for Thailand | Distribution Status in Each District of Saraburi Province | Ecology | Phenology | Utilization | Conservation Status for Wild Species in Saraburi | Voucher Specimens: T. Boonma | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mueang Saraburi | Kaeng Khoi | Nong Khae | Wihan Daeng | Nong Saeng | Ban Mo | Don Phut | Nong Don | Phra Phutthabat | Sao Hai | Muak Lek | Wang Muang | Chaloem Phra Kiat | Forest Type | Geology | Flowering | Fruiting | Purposes | Used Parts | ||||||
| 1 | Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. | Kha | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Cult | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 4–9 | 7–10 | Fd, Ss, Mc, Cs | Ro, Rh, Pd, Le, Fl, Fr | LC | SB0001 |
| 2 | Alpinia laosensis Gagnep. | Kha Ling | Native | – | Both | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg | UVR | 5–8 | 6–10 | Fd, Ss, Mc | Ro, Rh, Pd, Le, Fl, Fr | LC | SB0002 |
| 3 | Alpinia macroura K.Schum. | Kha Pa | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Evg | UVR | 3–6 | 5–10 | – | – | LC | SB0003 |
| 4 | Alpinia mutica Roxb. | Wan Saneh Haa | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 3–6 | 5–10 | Mc, RS, Ot | Rh, Wh | SB0004 | |||
| 5 | Alpinia oxymitra K.Schum. | Laow | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Evg | LSA, UVR | 2–5 | 5–9 | Fd, Mc | Ro, Pd, Le, Fl, Fr | LC | SB0005 |
| 6 | Alpinia purpurata (Vieill.) K.Schum. | Kha Daeng (red bracts), Kha Chomphoo (pink) | Introduced Introduced | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | Cult Cult | 1–12 1–12 | Not seen Not seen | Fw, Cs, Ot Fw, Cs, Ot | Fl, Wh Fl, Wh | SB0006-1 SB0006-2 | |||
| 7 | Alpinia siamensis K.Schum. | Kha Ta Daeng | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 5–8 | 7–11 | Fd, Ss, Mc, Cs | Rh, Pd, Le, Fl | SB0007 | |||
| 8 | Alpinia vittata W.Bull | Kha Daang | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 6–8 | 7–9 | Mc, Cs, RS, Ot | Rh, Wh | SB0008 | |||
| 9 | Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L.Burtt & R.M.Sm. | Kha Dang Bai Yai | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 3–6 | 6–8 | Mc, Cs, Ot | Rh, Pd, Le, Wh | SB0009 | |||
| 10 | Amomum foetidum Boonma & Saensouk | Mang Khang | N-EDM | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | 1–3 | Not seen | Ss | Wh | SB0010 | |||
| 11 | Amomum repoeense Pierre ex Gagnep. | Pud Pa | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Evg | UVR | 4–7 | 6–9 | – | – | LC | SB0011 |
| 12 | Amomum wandokthong (Picheans. & Yupparach) Škorničk. & Hlavatá | Wan Maha Saneh | P-EDM | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 4–11 | Not seen | RS, Ot | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0012 | |||
| 13 | Boesenbergia collinsii Mood & L.M.Prince | Wan Preaw | N-EDM | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg | LSA, UVR | 7–11 | Not seen | RS | Rh, Fl, Wh | VU | SB0013 |
| 14 | Boesenbergia maxwellii Mood, L.M.Prince & Triboun | Krachai Maxwell, Wan Kai Daeng | Native | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–9 | Not seen | RS | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0014 | |||
| 15 | Boesenbergia parvula (Wall. ex Baker) Kuntze | Krachai Pa | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Evg | UVR | 7–9 | 9–10 | – | – | VU | SB0015 |
| 16 | Boesenbergia petiolata Sirirugsa | Chao Phan | Native | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | Wild | – | Dvg, Evg | LSA, UVR | 7–10 | 8–11 | RS | Wh | LC | SB0016 |
| 17 | Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf. | Krachai | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Both | Both | Both | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 9–10 | Fd, Ss, Mc, Cs | Ro, Rh, Pd, Le, Wh | LC | SB0017 |
| 18 | Boesenbergia thorelii (Gagnep.) Loes. | Wan Phetchaglab | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | Both | – | – | Dvg | UVR | 7–9 | Not seen | RS | Rh, Fl, Wh | LC | SB0018 |
| 19 | Conamomum pierreanum (Gagnep.) Škorničk. & A.D.Poulsen | Krawan Pa | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Evg | UVR | 3–6 | Not seen | – | – | LC | SB0019 |
| 20 | Cornukaempferia argentifolia Boonma & Saensouk | Proh Thong Bai Ngern | R-EDM | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–8 | 8–9 | Ot | Wh | SB0020 | |||
| 21 | Cornukaempferia aurantiiflora Mood & K.Larsen | Proh Thong | N-EDM | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–8 | 8–9 | Ot | Wh | SB0021 | |||
| 22 | Cornukaempferia kamolwaniae Picheans. | Proh Thong Kamolwan | R-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–8 | 8–9 | Ot | Wh | SB0022 | |||
| 23 | Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. | Wan Maha Mek | Native | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | Cult | – | 3–6 | Not seen | Fd, Mc, RS | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0023 | |||
| 24 | Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep. | Pathumma, Krachiao | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0024 | |||
| 25 | Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. | Krachiao Daeng | Native | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | – | – | Dcf | LSA | 3–9 | 5–10 | Fd, Cs | Rh, Fl, Wh | LC | SB0025 |
| 26 | Curcuma charanii Boonma & Saensouk | Khachiao Lop Buri | P-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | SB0026 | |||
| 27 | Curcuma harmandii Gagnep. | Chor Morrakot | Native | Wild | Both | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | Cult | – | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | LC | SB0027 |
| 28 | Curcuma longa L. | Khamin Chan | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fd, Ss, Mc, Fw, Cs, Co | Ro, Rh, Fl | SB0028 | |||
| 29 | Curcuma mangga Valeton & Zijp | Wan Muang, Khamin Khaow | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 3–5 | 5–6 | Fd, Ss, Mc, Cs | Rh, Fl | SB0029 | |||
| 30 | Curcuma micrantha Škorničk. & Soonthornk. | Krachiao Chocolate | R-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | SB0030 | |||
| 31 | Curcuma myanmarensis (W.J.Kress) Škorničk. | Krachiao Phama | Introduced | – | Cult | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | Not seen | Fw, Ot | Fl, Wh | SB0031 | |||
| 32 | Curcuma parviflora Wall. | Krachiao Khaow, Wan Thep Rum Luek | Native | Cult | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Both | Cult | Dvg | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr, Ot | Wh | LC | SB0032 |
| 33 | Curcuma petiolata Roxb. | Bua Chan, Wan Thep Prachumporn | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Wild | Both | Cult | Dvg | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Rr, Ot | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0033 |
| 34 | Curcuma phrayawan Boonma & Saensouk | Phra Ya Wan | N-EDM | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Mc, Rr | Rh, Wh | SB0034 | |||
| 35 | Curcuma pierreana Gagnep. | Maha Udom Daeng | Native | – | Cult | Cult | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0035 | |||
| 36 | Curcuma puangpeniae Boonma & Saensouk | Krachiao Phuangpen, Wan Thep Rak Sa | N-EDM | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | – | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr, Ot | Fl, Wh | SB0036 | |||
| 37 | Curcuma putii Maknoi & Jenjitt. | Um Nong, Krachiao Lueng | N-EDM | – | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr, Ot | Wh | SB0037 | |||
| 38 | Curcuma rangjued Saensouk & Boonma | Rang Jued, Wan Rang Jued | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Mc | Rh | SB0038 | |||
| 39 | Curcuma rangsimae Boonma & Saensouk | Bussarakham, Maha Udom Saraburi | N-EDM | Both | Both | Both | Wild | – | – | – | – | Both | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Fl, Wh | EN: C2a(i,ii), D1 | SB0039 |
| 40 | Curcuma rhabdota Sirirugsa & M.F.Newman | Bua Lai Ubon | Native | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot | Fl, Wh | SB0040 | |||
| 41 | Curcuma roscoeana Wall. | Krachiao Som | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot | Fl, Wh | SB0041 | |||
| 42 | Curcuma rosea P.Saensouk, Saensouk & Boonma | Wan Umawadi, Khachiao Uthai | P-EDM | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0042 | |||
| 43 | Curcuma rubescens Roxb. | Wan Maha Prab | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 3–5 | 4–7 | Mc, Rr, Ot | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0043 | |||
| 44 | Curcuma rubrobracteata Škorničk., M.Sabu & Prasanthk. | Wan Ngu Hao | Native | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Fl, Wh | SB0044 | |||
| 45 | Curcuma sabhasrii Saensouk, Maknoi, Wongnak & Rakarcha | Wan Din Sor Pichai | R-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Fl, Wh | SB0045 | |||
| 46 | Curcuma saraburiensis Boonma & Saensouk | Saraburi Rum Luek, Wan Klom Nang Non | L-EDM | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Both | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | Mix | LSA | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Rr, Ot | Fl, Wh | CR: C2a(i,ii), D1 | SB0046 |
| 47 | Curcuma singularis Gagnep. | Krachiao Khaow, Dok Din | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Both | Cult | Cult | Dcf | LSA | 3–6 | 5–7 | Fd, Rr | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0047 |
| 48 | Curcuma supraneeana (W.J.Kress & K.Larsen) Škorničk. | Krachiao Supranee, Wan Khao Phan Sa | R-EDM | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Lcf | LSA, CRD | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Rr, Ot | Fl, Wh | CR: C2a(i,ii), D1 | SB0048 |
| 49 | Curcuma suraponii Boonma | Wan Krabi Thong | R-EDM | – | Cult | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–9 | Not seen | Rr, Ot | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0049 | |||
| 50 | Curcuma thorelii Gagnep. | Krachiao Khaow Pak Muang | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Both | Cult | – | Mix | LSA | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Rr, Ot | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0050 |
| 51 | Curcuma wanenlueanga Saensouk, Thomudtha & Boonma | Wan Enlueang | N-EDM | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Mc, Rr | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0051 | |||
| 52 | Etlingera araneosa (Baker) R.M. Sm. | Pud Daeng | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Evg | UVR | 3–5 | 4–6 | Fd, Ss | Rh, Pd, Fl | LC | SB0052 |
| 53 | Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M.Sm. - var. elatior (Jack) R.M.Sm. - var. alba Tohdam & C.K.Lim - var. pileng Ongsakul & C.K.Lim | Dalah - Dalah Chomphoo - Dalah Khaow - Dalah Daeng | Native Native Native Native | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | Cult Cult Cult | 1–12 1–12 6–10 | 1–12 7–11 Not Seen | Fd, Fw, Ot, Cs Fw, Ot, Cs Fd, Ot, Cs | Fl, Wh Fl, Wh Fl, Wh | SB0053-1 SB0053-2 SB0053-3 | |||
| 54 | Gagnepainia godefroyi (Baill.) K.Schum | Wan Phet Na Thang | Native | Cult | Cult | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | 4–6 | Not Seen | Rr, Ot | Rh, Wh | SB0054 | |||
| 55 | Gagnepainia harmandii (Baill.) K.Schum | Wan Morrakot | Native | Both | Both | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | Both | – | Both | Both | Both | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 4–6 | Not Seen | Rr, Ot | Rh, Fl, Wh | VU | SB0055 |
| 56 | Globba bicolor Gagnep. | Hong Song Si | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | Cult | – | Dcf, Mix | LSA | 7–9 | Not Seen | Fw, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0056 |
| 57 | Globba candida Gagnep. | Chor Khaow | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Both | – | Wild | Cult | – | Dcf, Mix | LSA | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | VU | SB0057 |
| 58 | Globba chrysochila Sangvir. & M.F.Newman | Dok Khao Phan Sa | N-EDM | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | Wild | Cult | Dcf, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | VU | SB0058 |
| 59 | Globba colpicola K.Schum. | Puang Thong | N-EDM | Cult | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Both | – | – | Cult | Cult | Dcf, Mix | LSA | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Rh, Fl, Wh | VU | SB0059 |
| 60 | Globba geoffrayi Gagnep. | Wan Thong | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg | UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | VU | SB0060 |
| 61 | Globba hilaris Sangvir. | Hong Hern Puang Khaow | Native | Wild | Both | Wild | Both | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | Cult | Cult | Dcf, Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | VU | SB0061 |
| 62 | Globba laeta K.Larsen | Khao Phan Sa Khaow Mae Sariang | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | SB0062 | |||
| 63 | Globba marantina L. | Khao Phan Sa Phum Khao Bin | Native | – | Both | – | – | – | – | – | – | Both | – | Both | Both | Both | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0063 |
| 64 | Globba obscura K.Larsen | Khao Phan Sa Khao Yai | N-EDM | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | Dvg | UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | VU | SB0064 |
| 65 | Globba rosea Gagnep. | Khao Phan Sa | Native | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | SB0065 | |||
| 66 | Globba schomburgkii Hook.f. | Khao Phan Sa | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Cult | Dcf, Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr, Co | Fl, Rh, Wh | LC | SB0066 |
| 67 | Globba sherwoodiana W.J.Kress & V.Gowda | Khao Phan Sa Khaow Phama | Native | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Fl, Rh, Wh | SB0067 | |||
| 68 | Globba thorelii Gagnep. | Hong Hern, Khao Phan Sa | Native | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0068 |
| 69 | Globba williamsiana M.F.Newman & Sangvir. | Dok Khao Phan Sa | N-EDM | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Cult | Dcf, Dvg | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Cs, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | VU | SB0069 |
| 70 | Globba xantholeuca Craib | Hong Hern, Khao Phan Sa | N-EDM | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | Cult | – | – | Wild | – | Wild | Wild | Wild | Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fw, Ot, Rr | Fl, Wh | LC | SB0070 |
| 71 | Hedychium coronarium J.Koenig | Maha Hong Khaow | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot, Rr | Wh | SB0071 | |||
| 72 | Hedychium longicornutum Griff. ex Baker | Pud Duean | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | SB0072 | |||
| 73 | Kaempferia angustifolia Roxb. | Wan Prab Sa Mut | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Cs, Mc, Rr | Rh, Wh | SB0073 | |||
| 74 | Kaempferia chaveerachiae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma [ sp. nov. ] | Proh Ajarn Mham | L-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | Dcf | LSA | 5–7 | 6–8 | – | – | CR B2ab(iii), D1 | SB0074 |
| 75 | Kaempferia elegans Wall. | Wan Nok Khum | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Cs, Rr, Ot | Rh, Wh | SB0075 | |||
| 76 | Kaempferia galanga L. | Proh Hom | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Cs, Mc | Rh, Pd, Le, Fl, Wh | SB0076 | |||
| 77 | Kaempferia gilbertii W.Bull | Wan Maha Ni Yom | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Cs, Rr, Ot | Wh | SB0077 | |||
| 78 | Kaempferia larsenii Sirirugsa | Proh Ra Sri | R-EDM | – | Cult | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0078 | |||
| 79 | Kaempferia lopburiensis Picheans. | Proh Bai Yai | N-EDM | – | Wild | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Wild | – | Wild | Wild | Wild | Dcf, Dvg | LSA | 3–5 | 5–6 | Ot | Wh | EN: C2a(i,ii), D1 | SB0079 |
| 80 | Kaempferia maculifolia Boonma & Saensouk | Proh Bai Lai Jut | N-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr, Ot | Wh | SB0080 | |||
| 81 | Kaempferia marginata Carey ex Roscoe | Proh, Toob Moob | Native | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | – | Wild | Wild | Wild | Dcf, Lcf | LSA, CRD | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fd, Mc | Rh, Le | LC | SB0081 |
| 82 | Kaempferia napavarniae Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma | Proh Napavarn | N-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr, Ot | Wh | SB0082 | |||
| 83 | Kaempferia nigrifolia Boonma & Saensouk | Nillakan, Proh Bai Dam | N-EDM | Wild | Both | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dvg, Mix | UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fd, Rr, Ot | Le, Wh | VU | SB0083 |
| 84 | Kaempferia pardi K. Larsen & Jenjitt. | Proh Suea Dao | N-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | SB0084 | |||
| 85 | Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker | Kra Chai Dam | Native | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Mc, Cs, Rr, Co | Rh, Wh | SB0085 | |||
| 86 | Kaempferia rotunda L. | Thip Pha Ya Net | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Both | Both | Both | Dcf, Dvg, Mix | LSA, UVR | 3–5 | 5–6 | Mc, Cs, Rr, Ot | Rh, Le, Fl, Wh | VU | SB0086 |
| 87 | Kaempferia sakonensis Saensouk, P.Saensouk & Boonma | Proh Sakon, Wan Kai Kuk | P-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Rr | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0087 | |||
| 88 | Kaempferia saraburiensis Picheans. | Proh Saraburi | R-EDM | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Wild | – | – | – | Wild | Mix | LSA | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | CR: C2a(i,ii), D1 | SB0088 |
| 89 | Kaempferia simaoensis Y.Y.Qian | Wan Haow Norn | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | 3–5 | 5–6 | Ot | Wh | SB0089 | |||
| 90 | Kaempferia takensis Boonma & Saensouk | Proh Mueang Tak, Phra Ya Nok Khum | N-EDM | Cult | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | Cult | 3–5 | 5–6 | Ot, Rr | Wh | SB0090 | |||
| 91 | Meistera koenigii (J.F.Gmel.) Škorničk. & M.F.Newman | Reo Puang A-Ngun | Native | – | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dcf | UVR | 4–6 | 5–7 | – | – | LC | SB0091 |
| 92 | Meistera tomrey (Gagnep.) Škorničk. & M.F.Newman | Reo | Native | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | – | Dcf | UVR | 3–6 | 5–7 | – | – | LC | SB0092 |
| 93 | Wurfbainia uliginosa (J.Koenig) Giseke | Kra Wan Pa | Native | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | Wild | – | Dcf | UVR | 4–7 | 5–8 | Ss, Mc | Ro, Le, Fl, Fr | LC | SB0093 |
| 94 | Zingiber brachystachys Triboun & K.Larsen | Khing Phra Phutthabat | N-EDM | – | Both | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | – | Wild | Wild | Wild | Dcf | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | EN: C2a(i,ii), D1 | SB0094 |
| 95 | Zingiber niveum Mood & Theilade | Khing Khaow | Native | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | SB0095 | |||
| 96 | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Khing | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Fd, Ss, Mc, Cs, Co | Ro, Rh, Pd, Le, Fl | SB0096 | |||
| 97 | Zingiber ottensii Valeton | Plai Dam | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 7–9 | 8–10 | Mc, Cs, Rr, Ot | Rh, Fl, Wh | SB0097 | |||
| 98 | Zingiber parishii Hook.f. | Wan Hom | Native | Wild | Both | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Dcf | UVR | 5–7 | Not seen | Ot | Wh | LC | SB0098 |
| 99 | Zingiber pellitum Gagnep. | Khing Cha Nee | Native | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | Cult | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | – | – | Dcf | UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | VU | SB0099 |
| 100 | Zingiber purpureum Roscoe | Plai, Plai Lueang | Introduced | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | 6–8 | 7–10 | Mc, Cs, Rr, Co | Ro, Rh, Pd, Le, Fl, Wh | SB0100 | |||
| 101 | Zingiber pyroglossum Triboun & K.Larsen | Khing Kra Tai Yai | Native | – | Cult | – | Cult | – | – | – | – | Cult | – | Wild | – | – | Dcf | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 8–10 | Ot | Wh | VU | SB0101 |
| 102 | Zingiber thorelii Gagnep. | Dok Din, Ta Kha Pa | Native | Wild | Wild | Wild | Wild | – | – | – | – | – | – | Wild | Wild | – | Dcf | LSA, UVR | 7–9 | 9–10 | Fd | Fl | VU | SB0102 |
| 103 | Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. | Kra Tue | Native | Both | Both | Both | Both | Cult | Cult | Cult | Cult | Both | Cult | Wild | Both | Both | Mix | LSA, UVR | 5–8 | 7–10 | Fd, Mc, Cs, Rr | Rh, Pd, Le, Fl, Wh | LC | SB0103 |
Abbreviations: cultivated (Cult), local endemic (L-EDM), provincial endemic (P-EDM), regional endemic (R-EDM), national endemic (N-EDM). Months: January (1), February (2), March (3), April (4), May (5), June (6), July (7), August (8), September (9), October (10), November (11), December (12). Forest type: Deciduous forest (Dcf), mixed deciduous forest (Mix), evergreen forest (Evg), dry evergreen forest (Dvg), limestone courtyard forest (Lcf). Geology: Limestone area (LSA), undifferentiated volcanic rocks area (UVR); colluvial and residual deposits (CRD). Utilization: foods (Fd), spices (Ss), medicines (Mc), cut flower (Fw), commercial cultivation (Cs), rituals and various socio-religious activities (Rr), ornamental (Ot), cosmetics (Co); Used part: roots (Ro), rhizomes (Rh), pseudostems (Pd), leaves (Le), inflorescences and flowers (Fl), fruits and seeds (Fr), and whole plant (Wh). Grey backgroud color: not found in the forest area.
Table 2.
Morphological comparison of K. chaveerachiae and K. parviflora Wall. ex Baker.
| Characters | Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker [21,22] | Kaempferia chaveerachiae (Present Study) |
|---|---|---|
| Rhizome | Moniliform, dark purple to brown | Sympodial, yellow |
| Leafy shoot | 6–40 cm tall, leaves erect | 4–5 cm tall, leaf horizontal near the ground |
| Number of leaves at anthesis | Single to several leaves | Only single leaf |
| Leaf sheath | c. 6 cm long, green with red tinge, margin pale purple | up to 2 cm long, white to very pale green, margin pale green |
| Petiole | Up to 20 cm long | 2–3 cm long |
| Lamina | 7–20 × 4–10 cm, base subcordate, midrib green or with reddish tinge, margin red, upper surface glabrous, green with purple mottling or dull red, sometimes with spectacular variegation on the adaxial surface, abaxial surface green with purple mottling or dull red | 9–16 × 5–8 cm, base cordate, midrib green, margin pale green with white hyaline, upper surface pubescent, green with varying degrees of dark green to almost black patterns on the adaxial surface, abaxial surface pale green |
| Inflorescence | 3.0–5.0 cm long, 1.0–2.0 cm in diameter, two outermost bracts (similar in size) form an involucrate structure resembling those found in the former Stahlianthus genus | 5.0–5.6 cm long, 0.75–0.82 cm in diameter, one outermost bract (largest bract) is tightly rolled into a slender, inverted, conical tube, with only a small hole through which the flower can emerge for blooming |
| Peduncle | 3–10 cm long | 2–3 cm long |
| Bract | Outward reflexed tip | Not reflexed tip |
| Bracteole | 0.6–1.2 × 0.1–0.2 cm, apex rounded | 1.4–2.7 × 0.3–0.5 cm, apex acute |
| Flower | 15–25 in number, blooming 1–2 flowers at a time | 5–8 in number, blooming a single flower at a time |
| Calyx | 1.8–2.2 cm long | 2.5–3.0 cm long |
| Floral tube | 3.0–4.0 cm long | 4.5–4.9 cm long |
| Dorsal corolla lobe | 1.0–1.3 × 0.25–0.3 cm | 1.8–2.0 × 0.2–0.25 cm |
| Labellum | 1.2–1.5 × 0.7–0.9 cm, emarginate, each lobe acute, purple with white margin | 1.5–1.6 × 1.2–1.3 cm, emarginate, each lobe retuse, purple gradually pales towards the distal part, with white at the base and extending along the mid lobe for about 1/3 of its length |
| Lateral staminodes | 1.0–1.3 × 0.2–0.3 cm, apex acute to rounded | 1.6–1.7 × 0.3–0.4 cm, apex acute |
| Filament | 0.4–0.5 mm long, c. 0.6 mm width | 0.55–0.6 mm long, c. 0.7 mm width |
| Anther thecae | c. 2.15 mm long | c. 2.4 mm long |
| Anther crest | Suborbicular, c. 1.1 × 1.8 mm, apex entire or emarginate | broadly orbiculate, c. 1.3 × 2.0 mm, apex subacute to rounded |
| Ovary | c. 2 × 1 mm | 3.5–4 × 1.5–2.0 mm |
| Stigma | Cup-shaped, not flattened, c. 0.6 mm length, c. 0.6 mm width, c. 0.5 mm thick, white | Fan-shaped, and flattened, c. 0.9 mm length, c. 0.8 mm width, c. 0.2 mm thick, yellow |
| Fruits | Oblong, c. 15 × 10 mm, purple | Ellipsoid, 14.6–16.5 × 5–6 mm, pale green, gradually paler at the base |
| Seeds | Brown | Very pale brown with dark brown patterns |
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MDPI and ACS Style
Boonma, T.; Saensouk, S.; Saensouk, P. Biogeography, Conservation Status, and Traditional Uses of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, Thailand, with Kaempferia chaveerachiae sp. nov. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 934. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090934
AMA Style
Boonma T, Saensouk S, Saensouk P. Biogeography, Conservation Status, and Traditional Uses of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, Thailand, with Kaempferia chaveerachiae sp. nov. Horticulturae. 2024; 10(9):934. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090934
Chicago/Turabian StyleBoonma, Thawatphong, Surapon Saensouk, and Piyaporn Saensouk. 2024. "Biogeography, Conservation Status, and Traditional Uses of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, Thailand, with Kaempferia chaveerachiae sp. nov." Horticulturae 10, no. 9: 934. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090934
APA StyleBoonma, T., Saensouk, S., & Saensouk, P. (2024). Biogeography, Conservation Status, and Traditional Uses of Zingiberaceae in Saraburi Province, Thailand, with Kaempferia chaveerachiae sp. nov. Horticulturae, 10(9), 934. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090934
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