A Review on Novel Channel Materials for Particle Image Velocimetry Measurements—Usability of Hydrogels in Cardiovascular Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Particle Image Velocimetry
2.1. Refractive Index Matching
2.2. PIV for Cardiovascular Applications
3. Hydrogels
3.1. Hydrogel Synthesis
3.2. Hydrogel Swelling
3.3. Measurement Methods for Optical and Mechanical Hydrogel Properties
3.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Utilizing Hydrogel as a PIV Channel Material
3.5. Double and Triple Networks and Nanocomposite Hydrogels
4. Hydrogels for PIV Channel Materials
4.1. Requirements for Optical Properties
4.2. Requirements for Mechanical Properties
- IOR: <1.55
- Light transmission: >90%
- Elastic modulus: all values
- Tensile/compressive stress at break: all values
- Nominal tensile/compressive strain at break: all values
- Water content: >50 wt%
4.3. Selection of Hydrogels
- Poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid (PAMPS)PAMPS is a synthetic polymer that consists of acrylic 2-Acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS). The chemical formula of PAMPS is (C7H13NO4S)n. This polymer dissolves well in pure water [71] and is hydrophilic [72]. Furthermore, PAMPS is a thermally stable homopolymer, which induces stability towards thermal degradation [71].
- Polyacrylic acid (PAA)PAA is the polymer of acrylic acid, a compound with the formula (C3H4O2)n. PAA exhibits high water retention, and upon absorbing water, it expands over its original size [73]. This hydrophilic property, as well as its propensity as an emulsifying agent, makes it widely marketable. It is commonly used in commercial products for its thickening and suspension properties, e.g., for disposable diapers, adhesives, paints, pharmaceutical drugs, and beauty products [73,74,75,76].
- Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)The chemical formula of PVA is (C2H4O)n. This polymer is synthetic and highly water soluble. It is produced by the hydrolysis of polyvinyl acetone [73,76,77]. Furthermore, highly polar and hydrophilic solvents can be used to dissolve PVA [73]. This polymer is typically used for rigid and clear optical films, adhesives, and transdermal drug delivery systems. Because of its excellent physical and chemical properties, such as high biocompatibility, low toxicity, and being chemically inert, PVA is broadly used in industrial applications [73,77].
- Polyacrylamide (PAAm)PAAm can be synthesized from the monomer acrylamide by free-radical polymerization [73,76]. The chemical formula is (C3H5NO)n. This polymer can be used as a superabsorbent material. Lightly cross-linked PAAm can absorb and retain large amounts of water and forms a soft gel when saturated [78]. It has other excellent properties for industrial use. For example, PAAm is chemically inert, has low toxicity, and is stable in a wide pH-value range [73,76].
- Polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyethylene oxide (PEO)PEG with low molecular weight (200 to 20,000 g/mol [79]) is an organic epoxide with the formula (C2H4O)n [80]. The polymer is known as PEO for higher molecular weights up to 5 million g/mol [79]. Because of its low toxicity, PEG is one of the most used synthetic hydrogels in biomedical applications [73]. PEG polymers are water soluble and can be coupled with hydrophobic molecules to act as surfactants. These polymers are also soluble in methanol, ethanol, benzene, acetonitrile, and dichloromethane [81].
- Sodium polyacrylate (PSA)This cross-linked PSA, with the chemical formula (C3H3NaO2)n, is a sodium salt of polyacrylic acid produced by free-radical polymerization [82]. This polymer can absorb a large amount of water because it contains ions, such as carboxyl groups and sodium, in the polymer chain [83]. These give PSA hydrophilic properties that allow it to be classified as a superabsorbent polymer. PSA is widely used in commercial applications, such as cosmetic products, and in general, e.g., in diapers as a thickening agent and in coatings [82,83].
- Poly-N-isopropyl acrylamide (PNIPA)PNIPA is one of the most often utilized temperature-sensitive hydrogels and has the formula (C6H11NO)n [84]. PNIPA changes its shape by undergoing a discontinuous phase transition at a critical temperature. When this occurs, the polymer chains change from hydrophobic to hydrophilic behavior and make the hydrogel swell. In addition, PNIPA is a biocompatible polymer. Therefore, its applications are found in the biomedical and optical fields [85].
5. Review of the Optical and Mechanical Properties of the Selected Hydrogels
6. Discussion
7. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Property | Measurement Method | Description | Relevance to PIV Channel Material |
---|---|---|---|
Optical | |||
Index of refraction (IOR) | Refractometry [35,40,44,45,46,47] | Determination of the angle of refraction by the change in light direction in different materials | IOR matching between flow channel material and fluid |
Infrared absorption | Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) [37,48,49,50,51,52] | Measuring the infrared absorption and emission spectra | Chemical hydrogel composition and structure |
Raman scattering | Raman spectroscopy [48] | Measuring the inelastic scattering of monochromatic light on molecules or solids | Chemical hydrogel composition and structure |
Light absorption | Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy (UV/VIS) [38,39,53] | Light absorption in the visible and ultraviolet radiation range caused by electron transitions between different states in the molecule | Chemical hydrogel composition and structure; transparency of hydrogel |
Mechanical | |||
Tensile/compressive stress | Universal testing machine (UTM) [37,48,49,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59] | Determining the behavior of material samples under axial, tensile, or compression load | Mechanical durability and stiffness depending on hydration |
Water vapor uptake and submission | Dynamic vapor sorption (DVS) [49,51,55,56,59,60] | Measuring material absorbability by varying the surrounding water vapor concentration | Hydrogel swelling and shrinking |
Elastic Modulus in MPa | Tensile Stress in MPa | Tensile Strain in % | |
---|---|---|---|
Physiological | 0.85–1.75 | 0.51–3.08 | 28–91 |
Pathological | 3.13–4.27 | 1.11–3.59 | 27–60 |
Elastic Modulus in MPa | Tensile (*)/Compressive Stress at Break in MPa | Nominal Tensile (*)/Compressive Strain at Break in % | Water Content in wt.% | Index of Refraction | Light Transmission in % | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid (PAMPS) | |||||||
PAMPS/PAAm PAMPS/PAAm PAMPS/PAAm + silica nano- particle PAMPS/PAAm/PAMPS (cross-linked) PAMPS/PAAm/PAMPS (non-cross-linked) PAMPS/PAMPS PAMPS/PAA PAMPS/PTFEA PAMPS/PTFEA/PAAm PAMPS/MBAm + laponite PAMPS/PAAm | 0.84 - 0.06–0.33 2 2.1 - - - - 0.69 - | 4.6 17.2 18.6–73.5 4.8 9.2 3 2.3 1.6 * 21 27 - | 65 92 94–97 57 70 80 75 4.9 * 97 - - | 84.8 90 - 82.5 84.8 93 92 52 93 - - | - - - - - - - - - - 1.346–1.350 | - - - - - - - - - - - - | [90] [49] [37] [90] [90] [49] [49] [49] [49] [54] [91] |
Polyacrylic acid (PAA) | |||||||
PAA/PAAm PAA/alginate PAA/alginate + silica nano- particles PAA + sodium silicate | - - - 0.0128–0.0456 | 2.1 1.32 7.72–9.73 - | 95 82.81 47.63–75.33 - | 89 98.5 98.1–98.2 99.1–99.8 | - - - - | - - - - | [49] [89] [89] [86] |
PAA PAA/PEGMA + nanotitania hybrid film | - - | - - | - - | - - | 1.527 1.501–1.528 | - - | [92] [50] |
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) | |||||||
PVA | - | 2.45 * | 650 * | 85 | - | - | [93] |
PVA | 0.38–2.28 * and 8.99–14.84 | 2.23–4.47 * | 207.8–317.4 * | 78.4–86.5 | - | - | [94] |
PVA + saline | 0.7–18.4 | 1.4–2.1 | 45–62 | 75–80 | - | - | [95] |
PVA + nanocellulose | - | - | - | 90.7–94.2 | 1.3330–1.3359 | - | [44] |
Polyacrylamide (PAAm) | |||||||
PAAm PAAm/PAAm PAAm/sPEOPO PAAm/PVA PAAm PAAm + sucrose PAAm PAAm/PAAm | 0.63 * - 11.6–59.1 0.062–0.087 - - - - | 1.1 * 5.4 2.0–5.6 - - - - - | 81 * 92 88.6–93.2 469–500 * - - - - | - 92 92.3–95.2 - 89.8 - 75–95 92.23 | - - - - - 1.385–1.420 1.338–1.380 1.343 | - - - 92 98.2–98.9 - - - | [96] [49] [87] [38] [39] [36] [68] [40] |
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) and oxide (PEO) | |||||||
PEG/PAA PEG/PAA PEG/PAA PEG-DA/PAA PEG-DA/MPEG PEO PEO/PEG | 0.5–1.5 * - - - - - - | 2–13 * 2.5–10.9 1.1 * 8 - - - | - 93.8–97.2 - 90 - - - | 83–99 90 85 - 50–95 80–95 - | 1.35 - 1.35 - 1.3388–1.4136 1.339–1.356 1.4539/1.459 | 90 - 96 - 97.6–100 - - | [45] [97] [46] [63] [68] [68] [92] |
Sodium polyacrylate (PSA) | |||||||
PSA PSA/PAA/PBA PSA/PAAm | - - - | 0.2–2.2 * 1.1–7.7 * - | 5–115 * 1170–1730 * - | - - 80.79–99.02 | - - 1.3327 | - - - | [98] [88] [35] |
Poly-N-isopropyl acrylamide (PNIPA) | |||||||
PNIPA + inorganic clay P(NIPA-co-AMPS)/PNIPA PNIPAm/PEGAAm PNIPA | 0.4 * 0.085–0.311 4.10 - | 1 * 2.532–17.50 0.175 * - | 1000 * 71–95 56 * - | 80–90 - 80 - | - - - 1.32–1.39 | - - 90 - | [52] [99] [85] [53] |
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Winkler, C.M.; Kuhn, A.I.; Hentschel, G.; Glasmacher, B. A Review on Novel Channel Materials for Particle Image Velocimetry Measurements—Usability of Hydrogels in Cardiovascular Applications. Gels 2022, 8, 502. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080502
Winkler CM, Kuhn AI, Hentschel G, Glasmacher B. A Review on Novel Channel Materials for Particle Image Velocimetry Measurements—Usability of Hydrogels in Cardiovascular Applications. Gels. 2022; 8(8):502. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080502
Chicago/Turabian StyleWinkler, Christina Maria, Antonia Isabel Kuhn, Gesine Hentschel, and Birgit Glasmacher. 2022. "A Review on Novel Channel Materials for Particle Image Velocimetry Measurements—Usability of Hydrogels in Cardiovascular Applications" Gels 8, no. 8: 502. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080502