Biomimetic Hydrogels in the Study of Cancer Mechanobiology: Overview, Biomedical Applications, and Future Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Cellular Microenvironment
1.1. Extracellular Matrix
1.1.1. Cell-ECM Interactions
Mechanobiology of the Cellular Microenvironment
Functional Category | Mechano-Transducers | Mechanical Signal | Examples of Cellular Responses |
---|---|---|---|
Cell Mechanical and Physical Properties | Integrins | Force | RhoA activation leading to increased cell stiffness [62,63] |
Focal Adhesions | Force | Actin polymerization [55] | |
Yes-associated protein (YAP) | Force | Oligodendrocyte morphology and maturation [40] | |
Titin | Force | Implicated in development of mechanical unloading-induced diaphragm weakness [64] | |
Stress Fibers (actin filaments, myosin II, etc.) | Force | Transmit tension to other proteins, regulate assembly of filaments [65] | |
Vinculin | Force | Transmit tensile force [66] | |
Myosin II | Force | Increased cortical tension and cell membrane fusion promotion [67] | |
Vasodilator stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP), zyxin, and Testin LIM domain protein (TES) | Force | Regulate junction dynamics [68] | |
Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1 (NOTCH1) | Shear Stress | Altered cell morphology [69] | |
Piezo1 | Force | Vascular structure [70] | |
Lamin A | Rigidity | Nuclear mechanics [71,72] | |
Integrins | Force | Tyrosine Phosphorylation, MAPK signaling [15] | |
Alters Signaling Pathways | Focal Adhesions | Force | Integrin convergence [73] |
Fibronectin | Force | Altered integrin binding [74] | |
T-cell receptor (TCR) | Force | T-cell calcium and IL-2 secretion [75] | |
Talin | Force | Recruitment of vinculin to focal adhesion complexes [76] | |
Piezo2 | Force | Serotonin release [77] | |
Vinculin | Force | Enhanced PI3K activation [78] | |
p130Cas | Force | Activation of Cas signaling pathway [79] | |
Syndecan-1 | Force | Activation of pro-inflammatory and growth-stimulating pathways [80] | |
Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily V Member 4 (TRPV4) | Force | Reorientation and flow-mediated nitric oxide production [81] | |
Ion Channels | Force | Cell signaling [82] | |
von Willebrand factor—glycoprotein Ib complex (VWF-GPIb) | Shear Stress | Enhanced calcium triggering in platelets and T cells [83] | |
Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) | Shear Stress | Tyrosine kinase Src and PI3K signaling activated [84] | |
G-protein coupled receptor 68 (GPR68) | Shear Stress | Component in signaling for cardiovascular pathophysiology [85] | |
β-catenin | Shear Stress | Activated expression of FOXC2 transcription factor [86] | |
Caveolin-1 and β1 Integrin | Stiffness | FA assembly and turnover [62] | |
rho-associated, coiled-coil-containing protein kinase (ROCK) 1 and 2 | Stiffness | Regulation of RhoA signaling pathways [87] | |
YAP | Stiffness | Altered translocation depending on surrounding stiffness [88] | |
Piezo1 | Force | Ion Permeation and selection [89] | |
C-X-C motif chemokine receptor (CXCR1/2) | Shear Stress | Mediates laminar shear-stress-induced endothelial cell migration [90] | |
Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) | Shear Stress | Collagenase-dependent fibroblast migration [91] | |
Migration | RhoA | Force | Collective cell migration [92] |
Vinculin and metavinculin | Force | Regulation of cell adhesion and motility [66] | |
NOTCH1 | Shear Stress | Decreased proliferation [69] | |
Caveolin 1 | Rigidity | Decreased proliferation [93] | |
Cancer | YAP1 | Shear Stress Stiffness | Cancer cell motility [54] Nuclear localization of YAP1 [94] |
TGFβ1 | Shear Stress | Human melanoma cell tumor invasiveness [91] | |
PI3K/Akt pathway | Stiffness | Overexpression of VEGF in hepatocarcinoma cells [63] | |
TRPV4 ion channel | Stiffness | Tumor vascularization through down-regulation of Rho kinase activity [95] | |
microRNAs | Stiffness | Altered expression in different stiffness conditions [96] | |
Twist1 | Stiffness | Induction of EMT and tumor metastasis [97] | |
Myocardin related transcription factor A (MRTF-A) | Stiffness | Regulates miRNAs involved in myogenic differentiation [88] | |
Differentiation | Focal Adhesions | Force | Osteogenic differentiation [98] Myofibroblastic differentiation [99] |
Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily M Member 7 (TRPM7) | Shear Stress | Osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells [100] |
1.1.2. Cell-ECM Interactions in Cancer
1.2. Neighboring Cells and Secreted Factors
1.3. Hydrogels as In Vitro Models of the Cellular Microenvironment
1.3.1. Mimicking Cellular Microenvironment Biomechanics
1.3.2. Recapitulating Cellular Microenvironment Heterogeneity
2. Hydrogels and Their Applications
2.1. Types of Hydrogels
2.1.1. Natural Hydrogels
2.1.2. Synthetic Hydrogels
2.1.3. Hybrid Hydrogels
2.2. General Properties of Hydrogels
2.3. Research Applications of Hydrogels
2.4. Clinical Applications of Hydrogels
3. Cancer and the Tumor Microenvironment
3.1. Glioblastoma and the Tumor Microenvironment
3.1.1. The Blood-Brain Barrier
3.1.2. Extracellular Matrix of the Brain
3.1.3. Overview of Microenvironment and Biomechanics of Glioblastoma
Biomechanics of the Glioblastoma Extracellular Matrix
Modification of the Extracellular Matrix in the Brain by Glioblastoma Cells
3.1.4. Glioblastoma Migration, Invasion, and Mechanotransduction
3.1.5. In Vitro Studies of Mechanotransduction in Glioblastoma
3.1.6. Hydrogel Culture Methods
Collagen
Hyaluronan
Other Proteins
Composite Biomaterial Hydrogels
Synthetic Hydrogels
4. Challenges and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
Arg-Gly-Asp peptides | RGD |
basic fibroblast growth factor | bFGF |
blood-brain barrier | BBB |
C-X-C motif chemokine receptor | CXCR |
epidermal growth factor | EGF |
epidermal growth factor receptor | EGFR |
extracellular matrix | ECM |
G-protein coupled receptor 68 | GPR68 |
gelatin methacryloyl | GelMa |
glioblastoma | GBM |
human umbilical vein endothelial cells | HUVECs |
hyaluronic acid | HA |
linker of nucleo- and cyto-skeleton | LINC |
matrix metalloproteinase | MMP |
Myocardin related transcription factor A | MRTF-A |
Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1 | NOTCH1 |
phosphoinositide 3-kinase | PI3K |
physically interacting cell sequencing | PIC-seq |
platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 | PECAM-1 |
polydimethylsiloxane | PDMS |
polyethylene glycol | PEG |
positron emission tomography | PET |
rho-associated, coiled-coil-containing protein kinase | ROCK |
T-cell receptor | TCR |
Testin LIM domain protein | TES |
Three-dimensional | 3D |
Transforming growth factor beta 1 | TGF b1 |
Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily M Member 7 | TRPM7 |
Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily V Member 4 | TRPV4 |
Two-dimensional | 2D |
urokinase | uPA |
urokinase receptor | uPAR |
vascular endothelial growth factor | VEGF |
vascular endothelial growth factor receptor | VEGFR |
Vasodilator stimulated phosphoprotein | VASP |
von Willebrand factor—glycoprotein Ib complex | VWF-GPIb |
Yes-associated protein | YAP |
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2-Dimensional Culture | 3-Dimensional Culture | ||
---|---|---|---|
Advantages | Disadvantages | Advantages | Disadvantages |
Simple | Does not mimic in vivo structure | More like in vivo structure | Expensive |
Reproducible | Fewer interactions with environment | Niches are available | Time consuming |
Inexpensive | Access to unlimited amount of nutrients from media | Access to nutrients is not unlimited, varies | Less reproducible |
Less diverse phenotype and polarity | Can form organs or spheroid clusters of cells | More complex and difficult to carry out | |
Altered cell morphology | Allows study of cell-cell and cell-ECM interactions | Fewer interactions with environment |
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Sahan, A.Z.; Baday, M.; Patel, C.B. Biomimetic Hydrogels in the Study of Cancer Mechanobiology: Overview, Biomedical Applications, and Future Perspectives. Gels 2022, 8, 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080496
Sahan AZ, Baday M, Patel CB. Biomimetic Hydrogels in the Study of Cancer Mechanobiology: Overview, Biomedical Applications, and Future Perspectives. Gels. 2022; 8(8):496. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080496
Chicago/Turabian StyleSahan, Ayse Z., Murat Baday, and Chirag B. Patel. 2022. "Biomimetic Hydrogels in the Study of Cancer Mechanobiology: Overview, Biomedical Applications, and Future Perspectives" Gels 8, no. 8: 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8080496