Amazing Fungi for Eco-Friendly Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Fungal Species and Agricultural Wastes for Mycelium-Based Composite Production
3. Physical Properties of Mycelium-Based Composites
3.1. Density
3.2. Shrinkage
3.3. Water Absorption
3.4. Thermal Conductivity
3.5. Thermal Degradation
3.6. Sound Absorption
4. Mechanical Properties of Mycelium-Based Composites
4.1. Compression Strength
4.2. Tensile Strength
4.3. Flexural Strength
5. Chemical Properties of Mycelium-Based Composites
5.1. pH and Nitrogen Content
5.2. Gas and Smoke Emissions
6. Biological Properties of Mycelium-Based Composites
6.1. Soil Burial Degradability
6.2. Termite Resistance
7. Critical Assessment of Mycelium-Based Composites
Properties | MBC | Products * | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Synthetic Foams | Wood Products | |||||||
PS | PU | PFR | PP | PW | SW | HW | ||
Density (kg/m3) | 25–954 | 11–50 | 30–100 | 35–120 | 895–920 | 460–680 | 440–600 | 850–1030 |
Shrinkage (%) | 6.2–15.0 | 0.2–0.6 | – | – | 1.0–2.5 | 1–25 | 6.8–13.8 | 10.2–19.2 |
Water absorption (%) | 24.45–560 | 0.03–9 | 0.01–72 | 1–15 | 0.01–0.03 | 5–49 | 5–190 | 5–190 |
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙K) | 0.029–0.104 | 0.03–0.04 | 0.006–0.8 | 0.03–0.04 | 0.10–0.22 | 0.3–0.5 | 0.08–0.3 | 0.2–0.5 |
Thermal degradation (°C) | 225–375 | 318–440 | 278–379 | 270–475 | 360–460 | 250–380 | 150–276 | 200–267 |
Acoustic absorption (%) | 70–75 | 20–60 | 20–80 | – | 5–32 | 10–23 | 5–15 | 5–15 |
Compression strength (MPa) | 0.03–4.44 | 0.03–0.69 | 0.002–48 | 0.2–0.55 | 31.19–48.29 | 8–25 | 35–43 | 68–83 |
Tensile strength (MPa) | 0.01–1.55 | 0.15–0.7 | 0.08–103 | 0.19–0.46 | 31–41.4 | 10–44 | 60–100 | 132–162 |
Flexural strength (MPa) | 0.05–4.40 | 0.07–0.70 | 0.21–57 | 0.38–0.78 | 22–23.2 | 35–78 | 9.9–11.5 | 10.3–11.5 |
Termite resistance | Low-moderate | Low, vulnerable to nesting | Low, excluding heartwood or treated wood | |||||
Final pH | 4.3–6.5 | – | Wood constituents | |||||
Nitrogen content (%) | 0.5–1.6 | – | Wood constituents | |||||
Biodegradability (%) | 19.1–70.0 | – | Wood constituents |
8. Mycelium-Based Designs
8.1. Architecture Form
8.2. Mycelium Based Construction Materials
8.3. Product Design
8.3.1. Household and Furniture Products
8.3.2. Packaging Products
8.3.3. Leather and Textiles
8.3.4. Crematory and Funeral Products
9. Patent Search
10. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fungal Species | Substrates | Pressing | Density (kg/m3) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Agaricus bisporus | Oat husk | – | 36.0 | [28] |
Rapeseed cake | – | 58.0 | [28] | |
Coriolus sp. | Apple wood chip | – | 210.0 | [24] |
Vine wood chip | – | 180.0 | [24] | |
Ganoderma sp. | Apple wood chip | – | 220.0 | [24] |
Vine wood chip | – | 210.0 | [24] | |
Ganoderma lucidum | Beech sawdust | Cold | 205.3 | [34] |
Chinese albizia sawdust | – | 130.0 | [35] | |
Chinese albizia sawdust | Heat | 954.0 | [35] | |
Oat husk | – | 25.0 | [28] | |
Rapeseed cake | – | 41.0 | [28] | |
Spent mushroom | Cold | 183.2 | [34] | |
Ganoderma resinaceum | Beechwood sawdust | – | 143.0 | [40] |
Lavender straw | – | 347.0 | [41] | |
Miscanthus fiber | – | 200.0 | [39] | |
Rose flowers | – | 462.0 | [41] | |
Irpex lacteus | Wood pulp | – | 265.0 | [47] |
Lentinus velutinus | Pine sawdust | – | 350.0 | [51] |
Oudemansiella radicata | Cotton stalk | – | 317.0 | [52] |
Pleurotus sp. | Wheat straw | – | 183.8 | [48] |
Pleutorus albidus | Pine sawdust | – | 300.0 | [51] |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Cotton | – | 130.0 | [23] |
Cotton | Cold | 240.0 | [23] | |
Cotton | Heat | 350.0 | [23] | |
Cotton stalk | – | 325.0 | [52] | |
Oat husk | – | 38.0 | [28] | |
Pine wood shaving | Heat | 290.0 | [55] | |
Rapeseed cake | – | 49.0 | [28] | |
Rapeseed straw | – | 130.0 | [23] | |
Rapeseed straw | Cold | 240.0 | [23] | |
Rapeseed straw | Heat | 390.0 | [23] | |
Rice husk | – | 437.0 | [57] | |
Sawdust | – | 178.5–552.0 | [26,56,58] | |
Sugarcane bagasse | – | 110.0 | [58] | |
Straw | – | 277.0 | [26] | |
Pycnoporus sanguineus | Coconut powder | – | 240.0 | [64] |
Pine sawdust | – | 320.0 | [51] | |
Trametes sp. | Apple wood chip | – | 200.0 | [24] |
Vine wood chip | – | 210.0 | [24] | |
Trametes hirsuta | Pine wood shaving | Heat | 260.0 | [55] |
Trametes multicolor | Beech sawdust | – | 170.0 | [23] |
Rapeseed straw | – | 100.0 | [23] | |
Rapeseed straw | Heat | 350.0 | [23] | |
Trametes versicolor | Beech sawdust | Cold | 200.1 | [34] |
Flax | Cold | 137.5 | [25] | |
Hardwood chips | – | 179.0 | [62] | |
Hemp hurds | Cold | 98.4 | [25] | |
Hemp shives | – | 134.0 | [62] | |
Rice hull | – | 193.0 | [61] | |
Spent mushroom | Cold | 195.2 | [34] | |
Wheat straw | Cold | 122.1 | [25] |
Fungal Species | Substrates | Time (hours) | Value (%) | Standard Test | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coriolus sp. | Apple wood chip | 96 | 240.0 | ASTM C272 | [24] |
Vine wood chip | 96 | 290.0 | ASTM C272 | [24] | |
Ganoderma sp. | Apple wood chip | 96 | 200.0 | ASTM C272 | [24] |
Vine wood chip | 96 | 180.0 | ASTM C272 | [24] | |
Ganoderma resinaceum | Lavender straw | 24 | 114.6 | ISO 16535:2019 | [41] |
Miscanthus fibers | 22 | 125.0 | Not mentioned | [39] | |
Rose flowers | 24 | 43.9 | ISO 16535:2019 | [41] | |
Lentinula edodes | Peach palm sheath | 48 | 351.0 | ASTM D570-98 | [49] |
Oudemansiella radicata | Cotton stalk | 168 | 162.4 | ASTM C272 | [52] |
Pleurotus sp. | Wheat straw | 24 | 268.4 | ASTM D570-98 | [48] |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Cotton | 192 | 508.0 | Not mentioned | [23] |
Cotton stalk | 168 | 168.1 | ASTM C272 | [52] | |
Hemp | 96 | 159.0 | Not mentioned | [53] | |
Lacquer wood chip | 96 | 135.0 | Not mentioned | [53] | |
Oak wood chip | 96 | 76.0 | Not mentioned | [53] | |
Pine wood shaving | 48 | 200.0 | Not mentioned | [55] | |
Rapeseed straw | 192 | 279.0 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Rice straw | 96 | 140.0 | Not mentioned | [53] | |
Sawdust | 24 | 131.0 | ASTM D570-98 | [58] | |
Sugarcane bagasse | 24 | 148.0 | ASTM D570-98 | [58] | |
Trametes sp. | Apple wood chip | 96 | 200.0 | ASTM C272 | [24] |
Vine wood chip | 96 | 190.0 | ASTM C272 | [24] | |
Trametes hirsuta | Pine wood shaving | 48 | 200.0 | Not mentioned | [55] |
Trametes multicolor | Beech sawdust | 192 | 43.0 | Not mentioned | [23] |
Rapeseed straw | 192 | 436.0 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Trametes versicolor | Flax | 24 | 30.3 | ASTM C1585 | [25] |
Hardwood chip | 24 | 400.0 | ASTM D1037 | [62] | |
Hemp hurds | 24 | 24.4 | ASTM C1585 | [25] | |
Hemp shives | 24 | 560.0 | ASTM D1037 | [62] | |
Wheat straw | 24 | 26.8 | ASTM C1585 | [25] |
Thermal Properties | Fungal Species | Substrates | Value | Standard Test | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙K) | Ganoderma lucidum | Beech sawdust | 0.070 | Not mentioned | [34] |
Spent mushroom | 0.064 | Not mentioned | [34] | ||
Wheat straw | 0.029 | Not mentioned | [37] | ||
Ganoderma resinaceum | Miscanthus fibers | 0.104 | ISO 8302 | [39] | |
Wheat straw | 0.081 | Not mentioned | [22] | ||
Irpex lacteus | Wood pulp | 0.070 | ASTM D5334 | [47] | |
Megasporoporia minor | Wheat straw | 0.079 | Not mentioned | [22] | |
Oxyporus latermarginatus | Wheat straw | 0.078 | Not mentioned | [22] | |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Reed | 0.070 | Not mentioned | [56] | |
Tomato stem | 0.060 | Not mentioned | [56] | ||
Trametes versicolor | Beech sawdust | 0.067 | Not mentioned | [34] | |
Flax | 0.059 | ASTM D5334 | [25] | ||
Hemp hurds | 0.040 | ASTM D5334 | [25] | ||
Spent mushroom | 0.064 | Not mentioned | [34] | ||
Wheat straw | 0.042 | ASTM D5334 | [25] | ||
Thermal degradation (about 70% weight loss) (°C) | Lentinus velutinus | Pine sawdust | 360 | Not mentioned | [51] |
Oudemansiella radicata | Cotton stalk | 310 | Not mentioned | [52] | |
Pleurotus albidus | Pine sawdust | 355 | Not mentioned | [51] | |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Cotton | 242 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Cotton stalk | 310 | Not mentioned | [52] | ||
Rapeseed straw | 225 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rubber sawdust | 350 | Not mentioned | [54] | ||
Sawdust | 280 | ASTM D3418 | [59] | ||
Pycnoporus sanguineus | Pine sawdust | 362 | Not mentioned | [51] | |
Trametes multicolor | Rapeseed straw | 225 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Trametes versicolor | Rice hull | 250 | Not mentioned | [61] | |
Wheat grain | 375 | Not mentioned | [67] |
Mechanical Properties | Fungal Species | Substrates | Pressing | Value (MPa) | Standard Test | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compression strength | Agaricus bisporus | Oat husk | – | 0.06 | Not mentioned | [28] |
Rapeseed cake | – | 0.20 | Not mentioned | [28] | ||
Fomes fomentarius | Hemp shives | – | 0.20 | Not mentioned | [32] | |
Rapeseed straw | – | 0.30 | Not mentioned | [32] | ||
Ganoderma lucidum | Chinese albizia sawdust | Heat | 4.44 | ASTM D1037 | [35] | |
Oat husk | – | 0.13 | Not mentioned | [28] | ||
Rapeseed cake | – | 0.28 | Not mentioned | [28] | ||
Red oak chips | – | 0.49 | ASTM D3574 | [38] | ||
Wheat straw | – | 0.07 | ISO 844 | [37] | ||
Ganoderma resinaceum | Beech sawdust | – | 1.32 | ISO EN 826 | [40] | |
Lavender straw | – | 0.72 | ISO EN 826 | [41] | ||
Miscanthus fibers | – | 1.80 | ISO 844 | [39] | ||
Rose flowers | – | 1.03 | ISO EN 826 | [41] | ||
Irpex lacteus | Wood pulp | – | 0.57 | ASTM D2166 | [47] | |
Lentinula edodes | Coconut powder | – | 0.06 | Not mentioned | [64] | |
Peach palm sheath | – | 0.22 | ASTM 165 | [49] | ||
Lentinus velutinus | Pine sawdust | – | 1.30 | Not mentioned | [51] | |
Oudemansiella radicata | Cotton stalk | – | 0.09 | ASTM D2166 | [52] | |
Pleurotus sp. | Wheat straw | – | 0.04 | ASTM C165 | [48] | |
Pleutorus albidus | Pine sawdust | – | 0.40 | Not mentioned | [51] | |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Cotton stalk | – | 0.13 | ASTM D2166 | [52] | |
Oat husk | – | 0.03 | Not mentioned | [28] | ||
Rapeseed cake | – | 0.28 | Not mentioned | [28] | ||
Rice husk | – | 1.35 | Not mentioned | [57] | ||
Sawdust | – | 1.02 | Not mentioned | [26] | ||
Straw | – | 0.07 | Not mentioned | [26] | ||
Pycnoporus sanguineus | Coconut powder | – | 0.19 | ASTM 1621 | [64] | |
Pine sawdust | – | 1.30 | Not mentioned | [51] | ||
Trametes versicolor | Flax | Cold | 0.31 | ASTM D5334 | [25] | |
Hemp hurds | Cold | 0.51 | ASTM D5334 | [25] | ||
Pine wood | Cold | 0.14 | ASTM D5334 | [25] | ||
Tensile strength | Ganoderma lucidum | Chinese albizia sawdust | Heat | 1.55 | ASTM D1037 | [35] |
Red oak chips | – | 0.18 | ASTM D3574 | [38] | ||
Pleurotus sp. | Wheat straw | – | 0.05 | ASTM D1623 | [48] | |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Cotton | Cold | 0.03 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Cotton | Heat | 0.13 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | – | 0.01 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | Cold | 0.03 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | Heat | 0.24 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Trametes multicolor | Beech sawdust | – | 0.05 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Rapeseed straw | – | 0.04 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | Heat | 0.15 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Flexural strength | Ganoderma lucidum | Chinese albizia sawdust | Heat | 2.68 | ASTM D1037 | [35] |
Cotton stalk | Heat | 4.40 | GB/T 17657 | [36] | ||
Pleurotus ostreatus | Cotton | – | 0.05 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Cotton | Cold | 0.24 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Cotton | Heat | 0.62 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Pine wood shaving | Heat | 0.94 | ASTM D7264 | [55] | ||
Rapeseed straw | – | 0.06 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | Cold | 0.21 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | Heat | 0.87 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rubber sawdust | Heat | 3.91 | JIS A5908 | [54] | ||
Trametes hirsuta | Pine wood shaving | Heat | 0.94 | ASTM D7264 | [55] | |
Trametes multicolor | Beech sawdust | – | 0.29 | Not mentioned | [23] | |
Rapeseed straw | – | 0.22 | Not mentioned | [23] | ||
Rapeseed straw | Heat | 0.86 | Not mentioned | [23] |
Fungal Species | Substrates | Final pH Value | Nitrogen Content (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Coriolus sp. | Apple wood chip | 4.5 | Not determined | [24] |
Vine wood chip | 4.5 | Not determined | [24] | |
Cyclocybe aegerita | Apple wood chip | 5.8 | 0.8 | [30] |
Eucalyptus wood chip | 6.5 | 0.9 | [30] | |
Oak wood chip | 6.0 | 0.6 | [30] | |
Pine wood chip | 6.3 | 0.6 | [30] | |
Ganoderma sp. | Apple wood chip | 4.5 | Not determined | [24] |
Vine wood chip | 4.5 | Not determined | [24] | |
Lentinula edodes | Peach palm sheath | 6.0 | 1.1 | [49] |
Pleurotus ostreatus | Apple wood chip | 4.6 | 0.7 | [30] |
Eucalyptus wood chip | 4.3 | 1.1 | [30] | |
Oak wood chip | 4.8 | 0.8 | [30] | |
Pine wood chip | 4.3 | 0.5 | [30] | |
Vine wood chip | 4.7 | 1.0 | [30] | |
Pleurotus pulmonarius | Apple wood chip | 5.3 | 0.7 | [30] |
Eucalyptus wood chip | 5.2 | 0.9 | [30] | |
Oak wood chip | 5.5 | 0.8 | [30] | |
Pine wood chip | 5.4 | 0.6 | [30] | |
Vine wood chip | 5.5 | 1.1 | [30] | |
Pleurotus salmoneostramineus | Eucalyptus wood chip | 4.7 | 0.8 | [30] |
Oak wood chip | 5.2 | 0.8 | [30] | |
Pine wood chip | 4.7 | 0.7 | [30] | |
Trametes sp. | Apple wood chip | 4.5 | Not determined | [24] |
Vine wood chip | 4.5 | Not determined | [24] | |
Trametes versicolor | Hardwood chip | None | 0.7 | [66] |
Hemp shives | None | 1.6 | [66] |
Project/Year of Completion | Location | Type | Structure | Fungus | Substrate | Post-Treatment | Creator |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HY-FI (2014) | Outside | Brick | Wood and Steel | Ganoderma lucidum | Corn stalks | Heat treated | The Living Studio |
Shell mycelium (2017) | Outside | Panel | Wood and Steel | Not mentioned | Coir pith | Naturally dried | Studio Beetles 3.3 Yassin Arredia Design |
Mycotree (2017) | Inside | Block | Bamboo and Steel | Pleurotus ostreatus | Sugar cane, Cassava root | Heat treated | Sustainable Construction KIT Karlsruhe Block Research Group ETH Zurich |
Monolito Micelio (2020) | Outside | Monolith | Wood and Steel | Ganoderma lucidum | Hemp | Naturally dried | Georgia Institute of Technology School of Architecture |
Growing Pavilion (2020) | Outside | Panel | Wood | Ganoderma lingzhi | Hemp, Cattail, and Mace | Heat treated and Weather resistant biocoating | Company New Heroes E. Klarenbeek |
My-Co Space (2021) | Outside | Panel | Wood and Steel | Fomes fomentarius | Hemp | Heat treated and Weather resistant biocoating | MY-CO-X Collective |
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Aiduang, W.; Chanthaluck, A.; Kumla, J.; Jatuwong, K.; Srinuanpan, S.; Waroonkun, T.; Oranratmanee, R.; Lumyong, S.; Suwannarach, N. Amazing Fungi for Eco-Friendly Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Review. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 842. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080842
Aiduang W, Chanthaluck A, Kumla J, Jatuwong K, Srinuanpan S, Waroonkun T, Oranratmanee R, Lumyong S, Suwannarach N. Amazing Fungi for Eco-Friendly Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Fungi. 2022; 8(8):842. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080842
Chicago/Turabian StyleAiduang, Worawoot, Athip Chanthaluck, Jaturong Kumla, Kritsana Jatuwong, Sirasit Srinuanpan, Tanut Waroonkun, Rawiwan Oranratmanee, Saisamorn Lumyong, and Nakarin Suwannarach. 2022. "Amazing Fungi for Eco-Friendly Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Review" Journal of Fungi 8, no. 8: 842. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080842