Does the Degree of Mutualism between Epichloë Fungi and Botanophila Flies Depend upon the Reproductive Mode of the Fungi?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Interaction
1.2. Scope of the Review
1.3. Natural History of Study System and Early Work
2. Contradictory Findings
3. Reconciling the Contradiction
4. Hypotheses
4.1. The Reproductive Assurance Hypothesis
4.2. Vector Dependence
4.3. Predictions from Hypothesis (1)
- A.
- Type I and II(pop) Epichloë fungi should be visited by more species of Botanophila than type II(ind) fungi. Because type II(ind) Epichloë are hypothesized to be more specialized in their interaction, the interaction should be more species-specific than that with type I or type II(pop) species.
- B.
- Cross fertilization of type II(ind) Epichloë by Botanophila adults should enhance Botanophila larval development more than cross fertilization of type I or type II(pop) fungi.
- C.
- Botanophila visiting type II(ind) fungi should produce a higher proportion of nonviable eggs than those visiting type I or type II(pop) fungi. Because type II(ind) Epichloë risk less when interacting with Botanophila, they should be expected to minimize costs of fly larval feeding through increasing Botanophila mortality.
- D.
- Excluding slugs from stromata should reduce cross fertilization more in type I and II(pop) Epichloë compared to type II(ind) Epichloë.
5. Future Directions
6. Alternative Hypotheses
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Host | Fungus | Reproductive Mode | Botanophila | Location | Comment | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poa trivialis | E. typhina | I | B. phrenione, B. dissecta, B. laterella | Europe | Grass has woodland and open habitat varieties | [27]; unpubl. data |
Poa autumnalis | E. typhina poae | II(ind) | ? | Eastern US | Only one population with choke known, need fly | |
Poa nemoralis | E. typhina poae | II(ind) | B. dissecta | Europe | Limited sampling | [27] |
Poa pratensis | E. typhina poae | I | B. dissecta, B. lobata | Europe | [27,28] | |
Dactylis glomerata | E. typhina | I | B. phrenione, B. lobata, B. dissecta | Europe, Oregon (US) | US population of choke formers introduced | [27] |
Anthoxanthum odoratum | E. typhina | I | B. phrenione, B. dissecta | Europe | [27] | |
Brachypodium pinnatum | E. typhina | I | B. dissecta, B. phrenione, B. laterella | Europe | [27] | |
Holcus lanatus | E. typhina clarkii | I | B. dissecta, B. laterella, B. phrenione | Europe | [27,29] | |
Puccinellia distans | E. typhina | II(ind) * | B. dissecta, B. phrenione, B. cuspidata | Poland | Appears to be type I within individuals | [30] |
Phleum pratense | E. typhina | I | B. dissecta, B. lobata | Europe | Limited sampling | [27] |
Agrostis stolonifera, Agrostis tenuis | E. baconii | I | B. dissecta | Europe | Limited sampling | [27,29] |
Festuca rubra | E. festucae | II(ind) | B. dissecta, B. lobata | Europe, N. America | [27] | |
Bachyelytrum erectum | E. brachyelytri | II(ind) | ? | N. America | ||
Agrostis hyemalis, Sphenopholis obtusata | E. amarillans | II(ind) | B. lobata, Taxon 5 | Eastern US | Only taxon 5 on A. hyemalis | [27]; unpubl. |
Bromus erectus, Elymus repens | E. bromicola | I | B. dissecta, B. lobata | Europe | [27,31] | |
Bromus benekenii | E. bromicola | II(ind?) | B. lobata, B. laterella | Europe | Limited sampling | [30] |
Elymus virginicus | E. elymi | II(ind) | B. lobata, Taxon 5, Taxon 6 | N. America | [27,30] | |
Elymus canadensis | E. elymi | II(ind) | Taxon 5 | N. America | [30] | |
Brachypodium sylvaticum | E. sylvatica | II(ind) * | B. lobata, B. phrenione, B. dissecta | Europe | [27] | |
Hordelymus europaeus | E. sylvatica pollinensis | II(ind) | ? | Europe | [32] | |
Glyceria striata | E. glyceriae | I | Taxon 6 | Eastern US | Limited sampling | [27] |
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Bultman, T.L.; Lembicz, M.; Leuchtmann, A. Does the Degree of Mutualism between Epichloë Fungi and Botanophila Flies Depend upon the Reproductive Mode of the Fungi? J. Fungi 2022, 8, 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121270
Bultman TL, Lembicz M, Leuchtmann A. Does the Degree of Mutualism between Epichloë Fungi and Botanophila Flies Depend upon the Reproductive Mode of the Fungi? Journal of Fungi. 2022; 8(12):1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121270
Chicago/Turabian StyleBultman, Thomas L., Marlena Lembicz, and Adrian Leuchtmann. 2022. "Does the Degree of Mutualism between Epichloë Fungi and Botanophila Flies Depend upon the Reproductive Mode of the Fungi?" Journal of Fungi 8, no. 12: 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8121270