Fungal Enzymes as Catalytic Tools for Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Degradation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Synthetic Plastics—Categories and PET
3. Fungal Enzyme-Mediated PET Degradation
4. Catalytic Mechanism of Cutinases for PET Hydrolysis
5. Limitations Hindering Enzymatic PET Biodegradation
6. Strategies to Enhance Enzyme-Based PET Biodegradation
6.1. Thermostable Enzymes
6.2. Use of Surfactants and Additives
6.3. Enzyme Tailoring and Genetic Modification
7. Conclusions and Future Considerations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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PET Packaging Products | Global Consumption in 2020 (Million Tonnes) |
---|---|
Water Bottles | 7.02 |
Carbonated soft drink (CSD) bottles (e.g., Coca Cola, beers) | 7.02 |
Other drinks (e.g., juices, milk) | 4.86 |
Other bottles/containers in form of films and sheets | 3.78 |
Food containers | 2.43 |
Containers for non-food consumer products (e.g., cosmetics) | 1.62 |
Hazardous Additives | Chemical Formula | Chemical Structure | Toxic Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bisphenol A (BPA) | Female and male infertility Precocious puberty Breast cancer Prostate cancer Metabolic disorders including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) | [39] | ||
Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) | Cancer Reproductive system Stages of development Nerve system Immune system | [40] | ||
Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) | Decrease in thyroid hormone levels Endocrine system Stages of development Reproductive system | [41] | ||
Lead chromate molybdate sulphate red | Cardiovascular system Respiratory system Gastrointestinal-liver Endocrine system Cancer Kidney damage Neurotoxic effects | [42] | ||
Medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCP) | Skin dryness Adverse effects on aquatic life | [43] | ||
Triclosan | Thyroid hormones Reproductive system Breast cancer | [44] | ||
Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) | Effect on kidney Reproductive system Irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and skin | [42] | ||
Diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP) | Reproductive system Developmental system Liver Kidney Possible triggering of cancer | [45] | ||
Dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) | Reproductive system Cumulative anti-androgenic effect with other phthalates | [46] | ||
Tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP) | Possible impairment of fertility Adverse effects on aquatic organisms | [47] | ||
1,3,5-Tris(oxiran-2-ylmethyl)-1,3,5-triazinane-2,4,6-trione (TGIC) | If swallowed If inhaled May cause genetic defects Serious eye damage | [42] | ||
1,3,5-tris[(2S and 2R)-2,3-epoxypropyl]-1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6- (1H,3H,5H)-trione (β-TGIC) | May cause genetic defects Harmful if swallowed Causes serious eye damage May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure May cause an allergic skin reaction | [42] | ||
Bisphenol S | Obesity Metabolic disorders Possible triggering of cancer Reproductive defects Gestational diabetes Breast cancers | [48] | ||
Benzophenone-3 | Allergic reactions Endocrine disruption Hirschsprung’s disease | [49] | ||
Antimony trioxide | Possible triggering of lung cancer Reproductive system Kidney, liver, heart | [50] |
Enzyme | Fungal Strain | PET Source | Percent PET-Degradation (Transformed Products) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lipase and Cutinase | Aspergillus tamarii and Penicillium crustosum | PET films | TPA | [59] |
Lipase | Penicillium simplicissimum | Post-consumer (PC)-PET | TPA, MHET and BHET | [60] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | PET waste | 90% conversion into monomers | [61] |
NR | Aspergillus sp. | Waste Plastic bottles | 22% weight loss after 6 weeks | [62] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | Synthetic PET | EG | [63] |
Cutinase | Fusarium oxysporum | PET woven fabric | TPA, MHET and BHET | [64] |
Cutinase | Fusarium oxysporum | PET fabrics | NR | [65] |
Cutinase | Humicola insolens | PET bottles | TPA, MHET and BHET | [66] |
Lipase | Candida antarctica | PET bottles | TPA, MHET and BHET | [66] |
Lipase | Candida rugosa | PET film | NR | [67] |
Hydrolase | Penicillium funiculosum | PET film | 0.21% weight loss | [68] |
Lipase | Thermomyces lanuginosus | PET fabrics and films | TPA, BHET, MHET | [69] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | PET fabrics and films | TPA, BHET, MHET, | [69] |
Cutinase | Humilica insolens | NR | TPA, EG | [70] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | NR | TPA, EG | [70] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | PET fabrics | NR | [71] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | PET fabrics | TPA | [72] |
Polyesterase | Penicillium citrinum | PET pellets/fabrics | TPA, MHET, BHET and BA | [73] |
Hydrolase | Fusarium oxysporum LCH I | PET fibers | TPA | [74] |
Hydrolase | Fusarium solani | PET fibers | TPA | [74] |
Hydrolase | Fusarium solani | Modified PET fabrics | NR | [75] |
Cutinase | Fusarium solani | PET film | MHET | [76] |
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Ahmaditabatabaei, S.; Kyazze, G.; Iqbal, H.M.N.; Keshavarz, T. Fungal Enzymes as Catalytic Tools for Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Degradation. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 931. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110931
Ahmaditabatabaei S, Kyazze G, Iqbal HMN, Keshavarz T. Fungal Enzymes as Catalytic Tools for Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Degradation. Journal of Fungi. 2021; 7(11):931. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110931
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhmaditabatabaei, Seyedehazita, Godfrey Kyazze, Hafiz M. N. Iqbal, and Tajalli Keshavarz. 2021. "Fungal Enzymes as Catalytic Tools for Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Degradation" Journal of Fungi 7, no. 11: 931. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110931