Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control of Canine Infectious Cyclic Thrombocytopenia and Granulocytic Anaplasmosis: Emerging Diseases of Veterinary and Public Health Significance
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. History
3. Etiology
4. Taxonomical Position of Anaplasma Bacteria
4.1. Evolution of Taxonomy
4.2. Current Classification
5. Epidemiology
5.1. Anaplasma platys
5.2. Anaplasma phagocytophilum
Domestic Canid | Countries (Region) | Prevalences (%) | Methods (Target Genes) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dog | Thailand | 13.9 | PCRa (groEL) | [62] |
Thailand | 29.4 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [63] | |
Thailand | 7.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/mHRMb | [64] | |
West Indies (Grenada) | 18.7 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [65] | |
West Indies (Grenada) | 33.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/ELISAc | [66] | |
West Indies (Grenada) | 16.4 | RT-PCRd (16S rRNA) | [67] | |
West Indies (Trinidad) | 2.3 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/RBLe | [68] | |
Pakistan | 11.34 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [69] | |
Paraguay | 10.67 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [70] | |
Colombia | 20.2 | RT-PCRd (16S rRNA) | [71] | |
Greece | Case report | Blood smear/ELISAc | [72] | |
Indonesia | 11.76 | PCRa (groEL) | [73] | |
Cape Verde | 7.7 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [74] | |
Italy | 70.5 | PCRa (groEL) | [75] | |
Italy (Putignano) | 52.9 | RT-PCRc (16S r RNA) | [76] | |
Italy (Teramo Kennel) | 33.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/RLBe | [48] | |
Croatia | Case report | RT-PCRd (groEL) | [77] | |
Australia | 51.3 | RT-PCRd (16S rRNA) | [78] | |
Australia | 23.7 | ELISAc | [78] | |
Australia | 32.0 | PCRa (16S/18S rRNA) | [49] | |
Australia | 3.8 | Blood smear/ELISAc/PCRa | [79] | |
Romania | Case report | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [80] | |
Dominican Republic | 11 | RT-PCRd (16S/18S rRNA) | [81] | |
Nicaragua | 13 | RT-PCRd(16S/18S rRNA) | [82] | |
Caribbean | 10.3 | ELISAc | [83] | |
Canada | 1.8 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (South) | 2.0 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (Mid Atlantic) | 1.1 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (Northeast) | 1.5 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (Midwest) | 0.6 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (West) | 1.0 | ELISAc | [83] | |
Mexico | 31.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [84] | |
Brazil | 7.19 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [51] | |
Turkey | 0.5 | RLBd | [85] | |
Costa Rica | 1 | PCRa (16S rRNA, groEL) | [86] | |
Brazil | 16.96 | nPCRf (16S rRNA) | [87] | |
Brazil | 19.4 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [88] | |
Brazil | 14.07 | nPCRf (16S rRNA)/ELISAc | [89] | |
Colombia | 53.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/ELISAc | [90] | |
Palestine | 53.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [91] | |
China | 62.1 | RT-LAMPg/nPCRf (16S rRNA) | [92] | |
Caribbean | 18.7 | PCRa (16S rRNA, gltA, groEl) | [65] | |
Argentina | 37.5 | PCRa (16S rRNA, groESL) | [93] | |
Costa Rica | 6.25 | nPCRf (16S rRNA)/ELISAc | [94] | |
Myanmar | 0.25 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [95] | |
Malawi | 2.4 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [96] | |
Galápagos | 6.9 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/ELISAc | [97] | |
Saudi Arabia | 57.1 | RT-PCRc (16S rRNA) | [98] | |
Greek islands | 18.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/IFATh | [99] | |
Malta | 22.7 | PCRa (16S rRNA, cox1) | [100] | |
Haiti | 6.3 | PCRa (16S/18S rRNA) | [101] | |
Cambodia | 32.0 | NGSi based metabarcoding | [102] | |
Uganda | 18.9 | RT-PCRd (16S rRNA)/IFATh | [103] | |
Albania | 3.3 | PCRa (16S rRNA)/ELISAb | [104] | |
Nigeria | 6.6 | RT-PCRd (16S rRNA) | [105] | |
Qatar | 1.6 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [106] | |
Texas | 0.17 | RT-PCRd (16S rRNA) | [107] | |
India | 22.6 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [108] | |
Japan | 32.0 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [109] |
6. Transmission
7. Life Cycle
8. Clinical Findings
9. Diagnosis
9.1. Direct Detection
9.2. Serology
9.3. Molecular Detection
9.4. Isolation and In Vitro Cultivation
10. Control
10.1. Vector Control
10.2. Vaccination against A. phagocytophilum and A. platys
10.3. Chemotherapeutic Use
11. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Anaplasma Species | Infecting Cells | Vertebrate Hosts | Potential Vectors | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
A. platys | Platelets | Dogs and camels | Rhipicephalus | [22,23] |
A. phagocytophilum | Granulocytes | Domestic and wild ruminants, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, rodents, insectivores, wild swine, and humans | Ixodes, Dermacentor, Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus | [13] |
A. marginale | Erythrocytes | Domestic ruminants | Rhipicephalus, Ixodes, Dermacentor | [24] |
A. centrale | Erythrocytes | Domestic and wild ruminants | Rhipicephalus, Ixodes, Haemaphysalis | [1] |
A. ovis | Erythrocytes | Domestic and wild ruminants and humans | Rhipicephalus, Dermacentor, Hyalomma | [1] |
A. bovis | Monocytes | Domestic and wild ruminants and small mammals | Haemaphysalis, Rhipicephalus, Amblyomma | [25] |
A. capra | Erythrocytes | Domestic and wild ruminants and humans | Haemaphysalis | [26,27] |
A. odocoilei | Platelets | Wild ruminants | Not known | [28] |
Candidatus A. camelii | Not known | Camels | Not known | [29] |
Candidatus A. boleense | Not known | Not known | Hyalomma | [30] |
Candidatus A. corsicanum | Not known | Domestic ruminants | Not known | [31] |
Candidatus A. mediterraneum | Not known | Domestic ruminants | Not known | [31] |
Candidatus A. sphenisci | Not known | African penguins | Not known | [32] |
Candidatus A. rodmosense | Not known | Rodents | Not known | [33] |
Domestic Canid | Countries (Regions) | Prevalences (%) | Methods(Target Genes) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dog | Iraq | 55.6 | Blood smear | [113] |
Iran | 2.0 | PCR a (msp4) | [114] | |
Mexico | 27 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [115] | |
USA (California) | 7.6 | RT-PCRb (msp2) | [116] | |
Brazil | 7.1 | RT-PCRb (msp2) | [117] | |
USA (South) | 2.1 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (Mid-Atlantic) | 5.4 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (Northeast) | 13 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (Midwest) | 1.9 | ELISAc | [83] | |
USA (West) | 2.0 | ELISAc | [83] | |
Canada | 1.1 | ELISAc | [83] | |
Caribbean | 3.4 | ELISAc | [83] | |
Sweden | 17.0 | IFATd | [118] | |
Colombia | 1.1 | PCRa (16S rRNA) | [119] | |
Costa Rica | 0.3 | PCRa (16SrRNA, groEL) | [86] | |
India | 0.4 | PCRa (16S/18S rRNA) | [108] | |
Turkey | 4.0 | nPCRe (16S rRNA) | [120] |
Disease | Clinical Findings | Diagnosis | Treatment | Control |
---|---|---|---|---|
Canine cyclic thrombocytopenia | Dogs usually remain asymptomatic; however, fever, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, anemia, icterus, petechiae, nasal discharge, lymphadenopathy, and lymphadenomegaly may beobserved [5] | Stained blood smear, thrombocytopenia, serology, and PCR/DNA sequencing [5] | Doxycycline @5–10 mg kg−1 q12–24 h for 8–10 days orenrofloxacin @ 5mg kg−1, q12 h for 14–21 days [5] | Tick elimination, collar, pour-on or spot-on acaricidal products for R. sanguineus sensu lato ticks, knowledge of tick seasonality, andecology [5] |
Canine granulocytic anaplasmosis | Non-specific signs, fever, anemia, anorexia, dullness, and thrombocytopenia [5] | Morulae in stained blood smear, thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, elevated liver enzymes, serology, andPCR/DNA sequencing [1,5] | Doxycycline 5mg/kg bid for 28 days [172] | Vector control, habitat modification, rearing tick-resistant breeds, and chemotherapy [5] |
Human granulocyticanaplasmosis | Fever, headache, myalgias, and chills [123] | Morulae in stained blood smear, thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, elevated liver enzymes, serology/IFA, and PCR/DNA sequencing [95,173] | Doxycycline @ 100mg, orally, twice dailyfor 10–14 days or rifampicin @ 20 mgkg−1 day−1 orallyfor children, otherwise 300 mg orally, twice dailyfor 5–7 days [47] | Humans: Minimizing high-risk tick exposure activities (hiking, gardening, etc.), blood transfusion, immune suppression, identificationof reservoirs and vectors, and their control [1] |
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Atif, F.A.; Mehnaz, S.; Qamar, M.F.; Roheen, T.; Sajid, M.S.; Ehtisham-ul-Haque, S.; Kashif, M.; Ben Said, M. Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control of Canine Infectious Cyclic Thrombocytopenia and Granulocytic Anaplasmosis: Emerging Diseases of Veterinary and Public Health Significance. Vet. Sci. 2021, 8, 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8120312
Atif FA, Mehnaz S, Qamar MF, Roheen T, Sajid MS, Ehtisham-ul-Haque S, Kashif M, Ben Said M. Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control of Canine Infectious Cyclic Thrombocytopenia and Granulocytic Anaplasmosis: Emerging Diseases of Veterinary and Public Health Significance. Veterinary Sciences. 2021; 8(12):312. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8120312
Chicago/Turabian StyleAtif, Farhan Ahmad, Saba Mehnaz, Muhammad Fiaz Qamar, Taleeha Roheen, Muhammad Sohail Sajid, Syed Ehtisham-ul-Haque, Muhammad Kashif, and Mourad Ben Said. 2021. "Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control of Canine Infectious Cyclic Thrombocytopenia and Granulocytic Anaplasmosis: Emerging Diseases of Veterinary and Public Health Significance" Veterinary Sciences 8, no. 12: 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8120312