Zoonotic Pathogens of Dromedary Camels in Kenya: A Systematised Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy and Record Assessment
2.2. Quality Criteria Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Summary
3.2. Viruses
3.3. Bacteria
3.4. Parasites and Fungi
4. Discussion
4.1. Trends in Camel Research
4.2. Study Locations
4.3. Viral Zoonoses
4.4. Bacterial Zoonoses
4.5. Parasitic Zoonoses
4.6. ‘Missing’ Pathogens
4.7. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Zoonotic Infections/Agents of Relevance | Search Terms and Synonyms (* Indicates Wildcard Search Function) |
---|---|
Brucella spp. | “brucel *” |
Camelpox | “camelpox”, “pox” “poxvir *”, “orthopox *” |
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus | “Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever *” |
Echinococcus granulosa sensu lato | “echinococ *”, “* hydatid *” |
Emerging pathogens | “emerging” AND “infection *” OR “virus *” OR “bacteria *” |
Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome virus | “Middle East respiratory”, “Middle Eastern respiratory”, “MERS”, “MERS-CoV”, “coronavir *” |
Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) | “q fever *”, “coxiell *” |
Rift Valley fever virus | “Rift Valley fever”, “RVF” |
Sarcoptes | “sarcopt *”, “mange *” |
Toxoplasmosis | “toxoplasma *” |
Trypanosome spp. | “* trypanos *”, “African trypan *” |
Tuberculosis | “TB”, “tubercul *”, “mycobact *” |
Good Quality (Low Risk of Bias) | Medium Quality (Moderate Risk of Bias) | Poor Quality (High Risk of Bias) |
---|---|---|
Unbiased selection of subjects, evidence of randomisation | Bias in subject selection is acknowledged and accounted for or is unavoidable | Bias in subject selection is not acknowledge or accounted for |
Appropriate data analysis | Data analysis limitations are acknowledged | Inappropriate data analysis |
Scientifically sound methods | Methods are sound but may not be the most appropriate | Methods are inappropriate |
Accurately described methods | Methods are comprehensible and valid even if details are lacking | Methods are unclear or incomplete |
Accurate and complete reporting of results | Results are reported accurately | Results are inaccurate or incomplete |
Pathogen or Disease | Number of Studies | Host or Vector of the Pathogen Identified | References | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quality Score | |||||||
Camel | Tick † | Human ‡ | Good | Medium | Poor | ||
Viruses | |||||||
MERS-CoV | 4 | X | X | [32,33] | [34,35] | ||
Rift Valley fever virus | 4 | X | [36,37] | [38,39] | |||
Camelpox | 4 | X | [40,41] | [42,43] | |||
Crimea-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus | 2 | X | X | [44,45] | |||
Contagious ecthyma | 2 | X | [46,47] | ||||
Dugbe virus | 1 | X | [48] | ||||
Dhori virus | 1 | X | [48] | ||||
Influenza viruses (ICV and IDV) | 1 | X | [49] | ||||
Bacteria | |||||||
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) | 3 | X | [50,51] | [52] | |||
Dermatophilus congolensis | 5 | X | [53] | [54,55,56,57] | |||
Brucella spp. | 7 | X | [58] | [59] | [12,60,61,62,63] | ||
Mycobacterium spp. | 1 | X | [60] | ||||
Rickettsia spp. | 1 | X | [64] | ||||
Parasites and Fungi | |||||||
Trypanosoma spp. | 28 | X | [65,66,67,68,69] | [10,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83] | [84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92] | ||
Echinococcus spp. | 10 | X | X | [93] | [94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102] | ||
Trichophyton verrucosum | 1 | X | [53] |
Type | Pathogen | Species | Dates Sampled | Test Used | Number Tested | County or Region | Prevalence % (95% CI) † | Quality | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virus | Middle Eastern respiratory coronavirus (MERS-CoV) | Camel | 1992–2013 | Recombinant MERS-CoV spike protein subunit 1-based ELISA (rELISA) described by Memish et al., 2014 [109] | 162 | North-eastern region | 56.2 | Medium | [34] |
154 | Eastern region | 17–100 | |||||||
458 | Rift Valley region | 0–18 | |||||||
Camels | 2013 | Spike protein subunit 1 protein microarray [110,111] | 335 | Laikipia county | 46.9 | Medium | [35] | ||
Camels | 2013 | AntiMERS-CoV Camel IgG ELISA kit (EUROIMMUN AG, Lübeck, Germany) | 879 | Marsabit county | 90 (95% CI 88–92) | Good | [33] | ||
Humans | AntiMERS-CoV Camel IgG ELISA kit (EUROIMMUN AG, Lübeck, Germany) followed by plaque reduction neutralisation test (PRNT) [112] | 760 | Marsabit county | 0 | |||||
Humans | 2013–2014 | rELISA (EUROIMMUN AG, Lübeck, Germany) followed by PRNT [112] | 559 | Garissa county | 0 | Good | [32] | ||
563 | Tana River county | 0.36 | |||||||
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus | Camels | 1986–1987 | Agar gel diffusion (AGD) test [113] | 499 | Not specified | 26 | Medium | [45] | |
Contagious ecthyma | Camels | Not specified | Clinical examination and electron microscopy | 600 | Turkana | 11.2 | Medium | [46] | |
Rift Valley fever virus | Camels | 2006–2007 (epidemic period) | In-house IgG ELISA [114] | 110 | Not specified | 20.9 | Medium | [36] | |
Camels | 2000 (pre-epidemic period) | In-house inhibition ELISA [115] | 15 | Galana county | 6.7 | Medium | [37] | ||
13 | Garissa county | 7.7 | |||||||
2007 (epidemic period) | 28 | Isiolo county | 57.1 | ||||||
Camelpox | Camels | 1992 | Clinical examination, electron microscopy, virus neutralisation | 1000 | Samburu county | 27 | Medium | [40] | |
1200 | Turkana county | 6 | |||||||
Influenza D virus (IDV) | Camels | 2015 | Hemagglutination inhibition (HI), post-ICV hemadsorption | 293 | Not specified | 8.2 | Medium | [49] | |
Influenza C virus (ICV) | Camels | 2015 | HI, post-IDV hemadsorption | 293 | Not specified | 10.6 | Medium | [49] | |
Bacteria | Brucella spp. | Camels | Not specified | Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) | 174 | Warir, Garissa and Mandera counties | 4.6 | Medium | [59] |
Serum agglutination test (SAT) | 10.34 | ||||||||
Complement fixation test (CFT) | 9.77 | ||||||||
Camels | 2013 | Brucella-Ab C-ELISA kit (SVANOVIR, Uppsala, Sweden) | 1605 | Marsabit county | 11.1 (95% CI 9.4–15.0) | Good | [108] | ||
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) | Camels | 2011 | ELISA CHEKIT Q fever test kit (IDEXX, Westbrook, ME, USA | 72 | Laikipia county | Adults (3–9 years) 46 Young (<6 m) 5 | Medium | [50] | |
Camels | 2013 | ELISA CHEKIT Q fever test kit (IDEXX, Hoofddorp, The Netherlands) | 334 | Laikipia county | 19 | Medium | [51] | ||
Dermatophilus congolensis | Camels | 1993 | Clinical examination and bacterial isolation | 3200 | Samburu county | Wet season, 20.9 Dry season, 13.6 | Medium | [53] | |
600 | Laikipia county | Wet season, 22.7 Dry season, 14.3 | |||||||
Parasites | Echinococcus spp. | Camels | 1998–2000 | Post-mortem examinations | 70 | Turkana county | 60.1 | Medium | [102] |
Camels | 2013 | Post-mortem examination and RFLP-PCR [98] | 219 | Meru and Isiolo counties | 6.94 | Medium | [98] | ||
Trypanosoma spp. | Camels | 1996–1997 | Haematocrit centrifugation technique (HCT) Mouse inoculation test (MIT) Suratex® latex agglutination test (Brentec Diagnostics, Nairobi, Kenya) [71] | 103 | Athi River (Machakos county) | 2.9 (95% CI 0–6.2) | Medium | [73] | |
749 | Isiolo county | 25.4 (95% CI 22.3–28.5) | |||||||
86 | Mugwoni (Laikipia county) | 18.6 (95% CI 10.4–26.8) | |||||||
Camels | Not specified | Phase contrast buffy coat technique (BCT) MIT | 347 | Kajiado county | 33.8 | Medium | [10] |
Echinococcus granulosus Species/Genotype | Host Species | Method of Confirmation | County/Location | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
E. granulosus Type B | Camel | Electrophoresis: isoelectric focusing | Turkana | [97] |
E. granulosus Type A | Human | Electrophoresis: isoelectric focusing | Turkana | [97] |
E. granulosus ‘Common sheep strain’ | Camel | PCR and electrophoresis | Turkana | [100] |
E. granulosus ‘Camel strain’ | Camel | PCR and electrophoresis | Turkana | [100] |
E. granulosus G1 | Camel Humans | PCR | Turkana/Maasai | [116] |
E. granulosus G6 (G6/7) | Camel Human | PCR | Turkana/Maasai | [116] |
E. granulosus G1 | Human | PCR | Turkana | [99] |
E. granulosus G6 | Human | PCR | Turkana | [99] |
E. granulosus sensu stricto (s.s.) | Camel | PCR | Meru/Isiolo | [98] |
E. canadensis (formally G7) | Camel | PCR | Meru/Isiolo | [98] |
E. Canadensis G6/7 cluster | Camels Human | PCR | Not specified | [93] |
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Hughes, E.C.; Anderson, N.E. Zoonotic Pathogens of Dromedary Camels in Kenya: A Systematised Review. Vet. Sci. 2020, 7, 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci7030103
Hughes EC, Anderson NE. Zoonotic Pathogens of Dromedary Camels in Kenya: A Systematised Review. Veterinary Sciences. 2020; 7(3):103. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci7030103
Chicago/Turabian StyleHughes, Ellen Clare, and Neil Euan Anderson. 2020. "Zoonotic Pathogens of Dromedary Camels in Kenya: A Systematised Review" Veterinary Sciences 7, no. 3: 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci7030103