Mycotoxin Contamination of Beverages Obtained from Tropical Crops
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. General Remarks for Mycotoxins
1.2. Consumption Data for Tropical Beverages and Related Products
1.3. Technological Processing and Mycotoxin Reduction
2. Common Drinks Produced in the Tropics Subjected to Mycotoxin Contamination
2.1. Tea (Including Mate)
2.1.1. Mycotoxin Contamination and Fungal Charge Found in Tea
2.1.2. Mycotoxin Transference Rate from Herbs to Infusions
2.1.3. Yerba Mate
2.1.4. The Relationship between Mycotoxins and Bioactive Compounds Found in Tea
2.2. Nutmilk and Similar Beverages
2.3. Fermented Beverages
2.4. Coffee
2.5. Chocolate Beverage
2.6. Fruits and Fruit Drinks
2.6.1. Mycotoxin in Pineapple and Pineapple Juice
2.6.2. Citrus Fruit Juices
2.6.3. Tomato Juice
2.6.4. Mango Juice
2.6.5. Other Cases
3. Methodological Aspects and Approaches for the Determination of Mycotoxins in Selected Matrices
3.1. Approaches in Sample Preparation
3.2. High-Throughput Multi-Analyte LC-Based Techniques
3.2.1. Coupled with MS Detectors
3.2.2. Coupled with UV and FLD Detectors
3.3. Non-Chromatographic Multiple Mycotoxin Analysis
4. Mycotoxin Risk Assessment and Integrated Management Approaches
4.1. Masked and Hidden Mycotoxins
4.2. Mycotoxin Risk and Climate Change
4.3. Multidisciplinary Approaches to Reduce Mycotoxin Contamination
4.4. Mycotoxin Contamination and the Food Chain
4.5. Selected Health Issues Related to Mycotoxin Exposure
5. Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Consumption | Production Export Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Tea (including mate) [23,25] | ||||
Rank | Country | kg per capita per year | Country | Metric tons |
1 | Paraguay | 12.22 | China | 2,414,802 |
2 | Uruguay | 9.66 | India | 1,252,174 |
3 | Argentina | 6.05 | Kenya | 473,000 |
4 | Kenya | 3.24 | Sri Lanka | 349,308 |
5 | Gambia | 3.22 | Turkey | 243,000 |
Coffee [26] | ||||
Rank | Country | kg per capita per year | Country | Thousand 60 kg bags |
1 | Finland | 12.2 | Brazil | 52,735 |
2 | Sweden | 10.1 | Vietnam | 29,500 |
3 | Norway | 8.9 | Colombia | 14,000 |
4 | Austria | 7.8 | Indonesia | 10,902 |
5 | Switzerland | 7.6 | Ethiopia | 7650 |
Chocolate [27,28] | ||||
Rank | Country | kg per capita per year | Country | Thousand USD |
1 | Switzerland | 8.98 | Cote d’Ivoire | 2,595,897 |
2 | Germany | 7.89 | Ghana | 1,090,910 |
3 | Ireland | 7.39 | Indonesia | 1,087,485 |
4 | United Kingdom | 7.39 | Nigeria | 599,000 |
5 | Norway | 6.62 | Cameroon | 540,281 |
Tropical beverage crops, fruits, and sugar [30] | ||||
Country | Million USD | Country | Million USD (percentage of the total agricultural products traded) | |
1 | United States | 2402 | Brazil | 16,466 (19.6) |
2 | Mexico | 3071 | Colombia | 2951 (45.8) |
3 | Spain | 3373 | Ecuador | 2782 (56.5) |
4 | China | 3386 | Vietnam | 2678 (26.5) |
5 | Germany | 4360 | Guatemala | 2403 (44.2) |
6 | Netherlands | 4708 | Ivory Coast | 2276 (48.5) |
7 | United Kingdom | 8602 | Costa Rica | 2015 (50.7) |
Mycotoxin Analysis in Tea | |||||||
Matrix | Country | Analyzed Toxin | Positive Samples | Minimum, µg kg−1 | Maximum, µg kg−1 | Analysis Method | Reference |
Pu-Erh tea | China | OTA | n = 4/36 | 6.50 × 10−1 | 9.47 × 101 | HPLC-FLD | [54] |
Medicinal plants | Rumania | AFs | n = 7/10 | 1.30 × 101 | 3.80 × 102 | ELISA | [60] |
FBs | n = 1/10 | 4.60 × 101 | 2.19 × 104 | ||||
Pu-Erh tea | China | AFB1 | n = 8/70 | 2.10 × 10−2 | 8.52 × 100 | ELISA and HPLC | [61] |
DON | n = 63/70 | 3.57 × 102 | 3.11 × 103 | ||||
Medicinal plants | India | AFB1 | n = 1/3 | 4.00 × 10−2 | 1.68 × 100 | HPLC-MS/MS | [68] |
AFB2 | n = 1/3 | 5.00 × 10−2 | 1.34 × 100 | ||||
Chamomile | Costa Rica | OTA | n = 13/17 | 1.40 × 10−1 | 4.10 × 10−1 | HPLC-FLD | [69] |
Mint | n =5/5 | 3.20 × 10−1 | 5.30 × 10−1 | ||||
Job’s tears | China | ZEA | n = 5/8 | 6.89 × 101 | 2.96 × 102 | HPLC-FLD-MS/MS | [70] |
Herbs | Spain | OTA | n = 19/88 | 8.00 × 10−1 | 1.06 × 101 | ELISA | [71] |
FBs | n = 3/88 | 1.40 × 102 | 2.37 × 102 | ||||
AFs | n = 30/88 | 2.60 × 100 | 8.53 × 102 | ||||
ZEA | n = 29/88 | 1.50 × 100 | 4.41 × 101 | ||||
T-2 | n = 29/88 | 6.00 × 10−1 | 2.57 × 102 | ||||
DON | n = 22/88 | 3.60 × 101 | 3.43 × 102 | ||||
CIT | n = 19/88 | 1.49 × 101 | 3.55 × 102 | ||||
Mycotoxin Analysis Nut Milk and Related Beverages | |||||||
Soft drinks | Spain and Belgium | AFB1 | n = 1/22 | 2.00 × 10−2 | 6.00 × 10−2 | HPLC-FLD | [81] |
Tiger nuts | Spain | AFB1 | n = 3/37 | 7.00 × 10−1 | 4.50 × 100 | HPLC-FLD | [82] |
Tiger nut beverages | AFB1 | n = 3/25 | 1.20 × 100 | 3.10 × 100 | |||
Peanuts | Costa Rica | AFs | n = 125/572 | 4.80 × 10−1 | 4.00 × 102 | Fluorimetry | [84] |
Almonds | n = 3/65 | 4.80 × 10−1 | 8.90 × 100 | ||||
Almonds | Portugal | AFB1 | n = 1/21 | 4.60 × 10−1 | 4.97 × 100 | HPLC-FLD | [85] |
Country | Positive Samples | OTA Concentration (μg kg−1) | Analysis Method | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Max | ||||
Decaffeinated coffee | |||||
Spain | 36/40 e | 4.4 × 100 | 32.40 | LC-MS/MS | [2] |
Green coffee beans | |||||
Denmark | 7/18 | 1.7 × 100 | 2.8 × 100 | UHPLC-MS/MS | [110] |
Panamá | 4/21 a | 2.6 × 101 | 3.8 × 101 | ELISA | [111] |
Roasted coffee | |||||
Spain | 61/169 | 1.9 × 100 | 4.7 × 100 | LC-MS/MS-QqQ-IT | [1] |
Spain | 7/52 b | 4.1 × 100 | 1.1 × 101 | LC-MS/MS | [2] |
Chile | 18/24 | 4.7 × 10−1 | 8.5 × 10−1 | HPLC/fluorescence detector (FLD) | [15] |
Costa Rica | 54/57 | 3.5 × 10−1 | 9.6 × 10−1 | ELISA (RIDASCREEN® Ochratoxin A) | [106] |
Denmark | 26/57 c | 2.3 × 100 | 2.1 × 101 | UHPLC-MS/MS | [110] |
Brazil | 23/34 d | 9.0 ×10−1 | 6.5 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [111] |
Soluble coffee | |||||
Italy | 42/44 | 1.3 × 100 | 6.4 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [5] |
Chile | 37/39 | 1.8 × 100 | 7.3 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [15] |
Denmark | 14/25 | 4.5 × 100 | 8.3 × 100 | UHPLC-MS/MS | [110] |
Brazil | 14/14 | 2.2 × 100 | 5.1 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [112] |
Portugal | 9/10 f | 2.8 × 100 | 1.2 × 101 | HPLC/FLD | [113] |
Country | Analyzed Toxin | Positive Samples | Mycotoxin Concentration (µg/kg) | Analysis Methods | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Max | |||||
Cocoa beans | ||||||
Brazil | OTA | 38/54 | 1,0 × 100 | >2 | HPLC/FLD | [122] |
Brazil | AFB1 | 11/85 a | 1.1 × 10−1 | 6.7 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [121] |
Cocoa powder | ||||||
Italy | OTA | 40/40 | 5.1 × 10−1 | 1.82 × 100 | HPLC | [118] |
Brazil | OTA | 25/25 | 3.9 × 10−1 | 9.2 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [120] |
Canada | OTA | n = 15 | 1.2 × 100 | 4.7 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Brazil | AF | 24/25 | 5.3 × 10−1 | 1.7 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [120] |
Canada | AF | n = 15 | 1.2 × 100 | 3.52 × 100 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Chocolate | ||||||
Italy | OTA | 139/260 | 1.4 × 10−1 | 7.4 × 10−1 | HPLC | [118] |
Brazil | OTA | 98/100 | 2.0 × 10−1 | 8.7 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [120] |
Canada | OTA | n = 30 | 2.9 × 10−1 | 6.5 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Brazil | AF | 73/100 | 3.0 × 10−1 | 9.1 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [120] |
Canada | AF | n = 30 | 1.9 × 10−1 | 9.1 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Baking chocolate | ||||||
Canada | OTA | n = 9 | 4.9 × 10−1 | 9.1 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Canada | AF | n = 9 | 2.7 × 10−1 | 6.7 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Cocoa liquor | ||||||
Canada | OTA | n = 5 | 4.3 × 10−1 | 5.6 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Canada | AF | n = 5 | 5.1 × 10−1 | 7.6 × 10−1 | HPLC/FLD | [119] |
Matrix | Target Toxins | Extraction Method | Column, Detection Method | Concentrations Found, µg kg−1 or µg L−1 (Total of Samples Assayed, n) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ochratoxin Determination | |||||
Liquorice | OTA | 80:20 MeOH:H2O, NERCB-Solid phase extraction (SPE) | Xbridge™ C18 150 × 2.1 mm, 3.5 µm, LC-MS/MS QTRAP®, ESI+ | 12.99–39.03 (26) | [191] |
Fermented beverages | OTA, T-2 toxin | 1-octanol, 80:20 methanol (MeOH):H2O, hollow fiber liquid phase microextraction | UPLC-MS/MS, ESI+ | <0.02–1.1 (9) | [192] |
Malt beverages | OTA | Dispersive liquid-liquid acetone/CHCl3 (73:27) | LC-FLD λex 330 nm, λem 460 nm Chromolith, RP18 HPLC column (100 × 4.6 mm) | <0.5–4 (Validation data) | [193] |
Alternaria Toxins | |||||
Tomato and tomato juice | ALT, AOH, TEN, TEA, AME, and CIT | MeOH, cleanup Strata-XL SPE cartridges (200 mg, 6 mL, 100 μm) | Ascentis Express C-18 (100 × 2.1 mm, 2.7 μm) TEA derivatized using 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine TSQ Quantum Ultra triple quadrupole MS detector, ESI- | 2–50 (Validation data) | [188] |
Tomato products (pulp, paste, ketchup) | AOH and AME | MeOH, 10 g/100 mL NH4SO4, liquid-liquid extraction CHCl3 | C18 300 × 2.9 mm, 10 μm. 300 mg ZnSO4/L in mobile phase. UV at 250 nm | Ketchup: AOH 0.42–1.16 | [189] |
Peppers | AOH, AME, TEA | 1. EtOAc, 1 mL/100 mL HCOOH and 2. Liquid-liquid 20 g/100 mL NH4SO4, CHCl3, HCl | 1. Kinetex 100 × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm. UPLC-DAD/QTOF mass spectrometer ESI 2. Phenomenex Jupiter 250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm C18. 300 mg ZnSO4/L in the mobile phase. UV 258 nm for AOH and AME, and 280 nm for TEA | TEA: 8–11 422 AOH: 3–98 AME: 7–262 | [190] |
Tomato | AOH, AME, TEA | Liquid-liquid extraction MeOH/EtOAc | Spherisorb, ODS2 250 × 4.6 mm, 5.0 µm. UV 254 nm | UV absorption match (Qualitative analysis) | [194] |
Cereals and cereal products | AOH, AME, ALT, TEA, TEN, altertoxin-I, and conjugated (sulfates and glucosides) of AOH and AME | Acetonitrile (ACN)/H2O/CH3COOH (79/19.5/1.5), combined with a hexane defatting step | UPLC-ESI±-MS/MS AcquityUPLC HSS T3 (1.8 µm, 2.1 mm × 100 mm) | Rice: 71% (n = 22/31), 35% (n = 11/31), 19% (6/31) contaminated with TEA, ranges (1.90 ± 0.12–113 ± 12), TEN (3.6 ± 0.7–15.6 ± 2.9), and AOH (1.83 ± 0.14–2.97 ± 0.23). Oats flakes: 31% (n = 5/16) contaminated with TEA (2.13 ± 0.18–39 ± 5) | [195] |
Aflatoxin Determination | |||||
Ginger | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA | Immunoaffinity column, MeOH | Agilent Poroshell 120 ECC18 column (50 × 4.6 mm, 2.7 µm) UFLC 5500 QTRAP® hybrid triple quadrupole/near ion trap mass spectrometer equipped, ESI+ | <0.25–13.98 AFB1 <0.10–3 045.37 OTA (3 inoculated ginger powders with A. flavus and A. carbonarius) | [71] |
Medicinal herbs | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 | 70:30 MeOH:H2O, Immunoafinity column | Agilent XDB C18-column 4.6 × 50 mm, 1.8 μm, MS/MS ESI+ | <0.14–290.80 (174) | [196] |
Edible and medicinal herbs | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, AFM1, AFM2, ZEA, zearalanone, α/β-zeralanol, and α/β-zearalenol | Immunoaffinity column, N-hydroxysuccinimide-activated Sepharose 4B Fast Flow gel with two group-specific monoclonal antibodies | Acquity HSS T3 2.1 mm × 100 mm; 1.8 μm and Acquity BEH C18 2.1 mm × 100 mm; 1.7 μm, MS/MS ESI± | AFB1 < 0.03–0.15 AFB2 < 0.03–0.54 ZEA < 0.05–2.78 ZAN < 0.06–10.5 (15) | [197] |
Multi-Toxin Analysis | |||||
Coffee beverages | OTA, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, STG, NIV, DON, 3-aDON, 15-aDON, DAS, NEO, HT-2, T-2, FB1, FB 2, ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1, and BEA | Ethyl acetate/formic acid (95:5). Reconstitution H2O/MeOH (50:50) | LC-MS/MS-TI, C18 column (150 mm × 2 mm, 3 µm, 110 Å), MRM; ESI+ | OTA < 0.24–4.93 AFB1 < 0.05–3.66 AFB2 < 0.04–5.64 AFG1 < 0.04–6.65 STG < 1.00–36.54 NIV < 0.02–24.46 DON <8.23–18.34 3-aDON < 1.00–5.17 NEO < 1.22–30.24 T2 < 0.21–3.57 HT2 < 5.41–14.39 FB1 < 2.78–5.18 ENA1 < 0.02–4.82 ENB < 0.14–36.14 ENB1 < 0.15– 5.33 BEA < 0.03–0.37 (6) | [116] |
Fresh tomatoes, bell peppers, onions, and soft red fruits | AOH, AME, OTA, FB1, FB2, and FB3 | ACN/EtAOc/HCOOH (60:39:1) | Agilent Zorbax SB-C8, LC-TOF-MS, ESI± | Tomato: TEA 0.7–4.8; Overall < 1.3–90.0 (319) | [151] |
Fruits (i.e., apple, orange, sweet cherry, and tomato fruits) | AOH, AME, ALT, TEN, TEA, OTA, PAT, CIT | ACN, NaCl. SPE ACN/H2O (3:7) containing 5 mmol L−1 ammonium acetate | Acquity Cortecs UPLC C18 column (100 × 2.1 mm, 1.6 µm), UPLC–MS/MS, ESI± | <1–50 (Validation data) | [176] |
Dry ginger | AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, AFB2, OTA, CIT | ACN/H2O (80:20) | Agilent Poroshell 120 EC C18, 100 × 2.1 mm, LC-MS/MS | Ginger AFB1 n = 16/28, OTA n = 20/28, CIT n = 16/28 | [76] |
Cereals (corn and wheat meal) | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, and ZEA | mSPE, ACN/H2O/HCOOH (80:19.8:0.2). Elution form mGCB CH2Cl2/MeOH 80:20 containing 0.2 mL/100 mL | Thermo Fisher Hypersil Gold C18 column 50 × 2.1 mm, 1.9 µm, UHPLC/ESI± MS/MS (TSQ, triple stage quadrupole) | OTA < 0.10–1.3 (10) ZEA 1.0 <–72.9 (10) | [177] |
Medicinal plants | ZEA, α-ZON | MeOH/H2O (80:20), NaCl. VICAM® ZearalaTest column, elution MeOH. | LC-FLD λex 274 nm, λem 440 nm, Ultimate XB-C18 column 250 × 4.6, 5 μm LC-MS/MS, ESI-, Gemini C18 20 mm × 2 mm, 3 μm | ZEA < 4–295.8 α-ZON < 2.5 (100) | [70] |
Tea, Herbal Infusions and the Derived Drinkable Products (from Camellia sinensis) | Nivalenol (NIV), DON, fusarenon-X (FSX), neosolaniol (NEO), 3a-DON, 15a-DON, AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, AFB2, sterigmatocystin (STE), OTA, FB1, FB2, FB3, AOH, AME, ALT, HT-2, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), ZEA | Raw material: Ethyl acetate (EtOAc)/HCOOH (99:1) NH2 SPE Drinkable products: C18 SPE, elution methanol | Acquity UPLC BEH C18, 100 × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm, UPLC-MS/MS, ESI+ | FB1 Ceylon mélange < 37–76 (91) | [198] |
Tea Beverages | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, 3aDON, 15aDON, NIV, HT-2, T-2, ZEA, OTA, ENN, BEA | Dispersion liquid-liquid: NaCl, ACN/EtOAc (60:40), MeOH/CHCl3 (60:40) | LC-MS/MS Turbo ion spray (TI), ESI+, Gemini NX C18 150 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm | Black, red, green and green/teas (44). Green/mint tea: n = 6/8 AFB2 14.4–32.2, n = 2/8 15aDON 60.5–61, n = 4/8 AFG2 1.9–2.6 | [199] |
Soy, oat and rice plant-based Beverages | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, DON, ZEA, T-2, HT-2, FB1, and FB2 | ACN with 1 mL/100 mL HCOOH, MgSO4, and NaCl | Cortecs UHPLC C18 column (100 × 2.1 mm, 1.6 µm), Triple Quadrupole MS/MS, ESI+ | Oat: 0.1 AFG1, 0.4 AFB2, AFB2 0.2–0.3, T-2 0.4–1.3, OTA 0.2 Rice: DON 15–19 (9) | [200] |
Green Coffee Bean Extracts | OTA, OTB, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, TRC A, and B, Alternaria toxins, FB1, FB2, FB3, enniatins (enniatin A, A1, B, B1), BEA, CIT, cyclopiazonic, mycophenolic, and, PA, penitrem A, roquefortine C, gliotoxin, STE. | H2O with 2 mL/100 mL HCOOH and ACN (50:50). MgSO4, NaCl (QuEChERS) | UFLC-QTRAP® TurboIon electrospray, ESI and UPLC quadrupole-orbitrap HESI-II ESI | OTA, OTB, FB1 and mycophenolic acid prevalence: 36%, 32%, 10%, and 16%, respectively. OTA < 1.0−136.9, OTB < 1.0−20.2, FB1 < 50.0−415.0, mycophenolic acid, < 5.0−395.0 | [201] |
Berry by-products Jam/Juice (i.e., strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, cranberries, and raspberries) and mixed in minor percentage with grape, pomegranate, cherry, apple and plum juice. | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, AOH, AME, TEN | ACN sodium citrate, MgSO4, and NaCl (QuEChERS) | Phenomenex Gemini-NX C18 (150 × 2.0 mm, 3 µm) LC-MS/MS QTRAP®, ESI+ (Turbo-VTM) | Jams: 1.6 AFG1 Juices: 0.9 AFB2 0.4 AFG1, AFG2 0.7–79, Alternaria toxins (AOH 2.5–85 and AME 267–308) 47% prevalence (52) | [202] |
Evaporated cow milk | AFM1, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2; OTA, OTB, FB1, FB2, FB3, HT-2, T-2, NIV, DON, deepoxy-DON, 3 and 15a-DON, DAS, FSX, NEO, STE, and ZEA | ACN acidified with HCOOH | Ascentis Express C18 column (150 × 2.1 mm, 2.7 µm), Triple Quad (QqQ) LC-MS/MS | OTA: 4/30 < 0.2 (30) | [203] |
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Granados-Chinchilla, F.; Redondo-Solano, M.; Jaikel-Víquez, D. Mycotoxin Contamination of Beverages Obtained from Tropical Crops. Beverages 2018, 4, 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages4040083
Granados-Chinchilla F, Redondo-Solano M, Jaikel-Víquez D. Mycotoxin Contamination of Beverages Obtained from Tropical Crops. Beverages. 2018; 4(4):83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages4040083
Chicago/Turabian StyleGranados-Chinchilla, Fabio, Mauricio Redondo-Solano, and Daniela Jaikel-Víquez. 2018. "Mycotoxin Contamination of Beverages Obtained from Tropical Crops" Beverages 4, no. 4: 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages4040083