The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment

Shang, Junjie; Dong, Chengqian; Zhou, Qian; Chai, Jinmei; Wei, Yunlin

doi:10.3390/bioengineering13020233

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The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment

by

Junjie Shang

^†

,

Chengqian Dong

^†

,

Qian Zhou

,

Jinmei Chai

and

Yunlin Wei

^*

Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

^†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Bioengineering 2026, 13(2), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13020233

Submission received: 22 December 2025 / Revised: 2 February 2026 / Accepted: 12 February 2026 / Published: 17 February 2026

(This article belongs to the Section Biochemical Engineering)

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Abstract

Temperature fluctuations strongly affect microbial viability, often inducing adaptive responses. In this study, we employed the psychrophilic bacterium Bacillus mycoides 41-22 and its associated phage VMY22, originally isolated from the Mingyong Glacier, to investigate phage adaptability under varied temperature conditions. Through selective enrichment at 4 °C, 15 °C, 28 °C, and 32 °C, we observed clear differences in phage infectivity, as assessed by plaque assays, along with genomic mutations and protein structural changes. Notably, mutations predominantly occurred in functional genes (ATPase, endolysin), while the examined structural loci remained conserved. Homology modeling revealed distinct adaptations in protein tertiary structures corresponding to environmental temperatures, suggesting that phage evolution mainly affects post-adsorption processes. Our findings elucidate a novel mechanism of temperature-driven functional protein evolution among cold-adapted bacteriophages (phage) and providing insights into their potential applications in microbial ecology and biotechnology.

Keywords: Bacillus mycoides; temperature change; physiological and biochemical properties; phage; functional protein

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MDPI and ACS Style

Shang, J.; Dong, C.; Zhou, Q.; Chai, J.; Wei, Y. The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment. Bioengineering 2026, 13, 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13020233

AMA Style

Shang J, Dong C, Zhou Q, Chai J, Wei Y. The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment. Bioengineering. 2026; 13(2):233. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13020233

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shang, Junjie, Chengqian Dong, Qian Zhou, Jinmei Chai, and Yunlin Wei. 2026. "The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment" Bioengineering 13, no. 2: 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13020233

APA Style

Shang, J., Dong, C., Zhou, Q., Chai, J., & Wei, Y. (2026). The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment. Bioengineering, 13(2), 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13020233

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The Bacteriophage VMY 22 Has Enhanced the Stability of Its Functional Proteins via Adaptive Evolution in a Temperature-Varying Environment

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