How Do Cartilage Lubrication Mechanisms Fail in Osteoarthritis? A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanical Properties of AC in OA
Sample Source | Reference | Healthy/Osteoarthritic | Natural OA/Induced OA | Cartilage Region | Testing Condition | Mechanical Properties | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Young’s Modulus | Aggregate Modulus | Other Findings | ||||||
Bovine | [46] | H | - | Knee joint | Static and dynamic confined compression (microscale) | - | 0.37 ± 0.03 MPa (adult) 0.43 ± 0.02 MPa (calf), and 0.15 ± 0.01 MPa (fetus) | Permeability (kp) expressed as (log10kp(m2/(Pa s)) −14.92 ± 0.93 (adult) −15.19 ± 0.32 (calf), and −15.60 ± 0.46 (fetus) |
[47] | H | - | Knee joint | Unconfined compression (macroscale) | 14.6 ± 6.9 MPa at 0.1 Hz to 28.7 ± 7.8 MPa at 40 Hz | 0.49 ± 0.10 MPa | Peak compressive strain amplitudes 15.8 ± 3.4% at 0.1 Hz to 8.7 ± 1.8% at 40 Hz | |
[48] | H | - | Knee joint | Unconfined compression (microscale) | - | 0.96 ± 0.47 MPa (adult) 0.89 ± 0.39 MPa (calf), and 0.72 ± 0.36 MPa (fetus) | Poisson’s ratio 0.26 ± 0.11 (adult) 0.09 ± 0.02 (calf), and 0.11 ± 0.03 (fetus) | |
[49] | H | - | Knee joint | Indentation (microscale) | 3.9 ± 0.7 MPa (Effective contact modulus) | 0.62 ± 0.10 MPa (equilibrium contact modulus) | Tensile modulus 4.3 ± 0.7 MPa and permeability 2.8 ± 0.9 × 10−3 mm4/Ns | |
[50] | H | - | Knee joint | Indentation (microscale) | - | 0.93 MPa (equilibrium contact modulus) | - | |
[51] | OA | (In vitro) induced with type II bacterial collagenase | Knee joint | Confined compression (macroscale) | - | 0.06 ± 0.03–0.13 ± 0.06 MPa | Permeability 4.73 ± 1.43 × 10−14 m4/N s–8.25 ± 2.24 × 10−14 m4/N s | |
[52] | OA | (In vitro) induced using collagenase, chondroitinase ABC, or elastase | Knee joint | Indentation (microscale) | - | 0.7 MPa (collagenase), 0.3 MPa (chondroitinase ABC), and 0.7 MPa (elastase) | - | |
[53] | OA | (In vitro) induced using collagenase | Knee joint | Unconfined compression (microscale) | - | 0.45 ± 0.21 to 0.23 ± 0.14 MPa with 2 U/mL collagenase treatment and 0.49 ± 0.19 to 0.19 ± 0.08 MPa with 10 U/mL collagenase treatment | Compressive strain 21.7 ± 5.6 to 26.2 ± 7.6% at 0.1 Hz loading frequency and from 9.6 ± 3.3 to 13.5 ± 3.2% at 40 Hz loading frequency with 10 U/mL collagenase treatment | |
Porcine | [54] | H | - | Knee joint | Indentation (microscale) | 2 MPa at 2.5 mN and 7 MPa at 10 mN | - | Contact stiffness 0.5 kNm−1 at 2.5 mN and 4.0 kNm−1 at 10 mN Hardness 0.07 ± 0.01 MPa at 2.5 mN |
[55] | H | - | Knee joint | Indentation (mesoscale) | 2.93 MPa | - | Hardness 0.05 MPa | |
[56] | H | - | Knee joint | Confined compression (micro scale) | - | 0.71 ± 0.50 MPa (creep) and 0.68 ± 0.48 MPa (recovery) | - | |
[57] | OA | (In vitro) induced with papain | Knee joint | Confined compression (microscale) | - | 0.09–0.38 MPa (medial femoral condyle), 0.32–0.42 MPa (lateral patellar groove), and 0.095–0.38 MPa (medial patellar groove) | (1.9–7) × 10−15 m4/N s (medial femoral condyle), (1.2–2.6) × 10−15 m4/N s (lateral patellar groove), and (1.2–1.5) × 10−15 m4/N s (medial patellar groove) | |
Rabbit | [58] | H | - | Knee joint | AFM indentation (nanoscale) | - | 0.52 ± 0.05 MPa (superficial zone) 1.69 ± 0.12 MPa (calcified zone) | Surface roughness 59.0 ± 12.6 nm |
[59] | OA | (In vivo) intramuscular injection of ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (8 mg/kg) | Knee joint | Surface properties | - | - | Surface roughness values (mean rms values) 95–320% | |
[60] | OA | (In vivo) anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) model | Knee joint | Indentation (nanoscale) | 3.37 ± 1.23 MPa (instantaneous modulus) | 0.85 ± 0.29 MPa (equilibrium modulus) | - | |
Human | [61] | H | - | Knee joint | Confined compression (macroscale) | - | 0.499 ± 0.208 MPa to 1.597 ± 0.455 MPa) | Permeability 0.689 ± 0.304 × 103 (mm4/N-s) to 1.318 ± 0.673 × 103 (mm4/N-s) |
[62] | H | - | Knee joint | Unconfined compression (macroscale) | - | 1.60 ± 0.51 MPa to 2.47 ± 0.49 MPa | - | |
[63] | H | - | Knee joint | Unconfined compression (microscale) | - | 0.53 ± 0.25 MPa | - | |
[64] | OA | Total joint replacement patients | Knee joint | Unconfined compression (macroscale) | - | - | Shear modulus 4.6 ± 1.8 MPa | |
[65] | OA | Total joint replacement patients | Knee joint | Indentation (macroscale) | 2.51 to 10.7 MPa (instantaneous modulus) | 0.07 to 2.86 MPa (equilibrium modulus) | - | |
[66] | OA | Total joint replacement patients | Knee joint | Micropipette aspiration technique | - | Chondrocytes (0.63 ± 0.51 kPa), instantaneous modulus, and 0.33 ± 0.23 kPa) equilibrium modulus | - |
3. Tribological Properties of AC in OA
4. Chronology of Cartilage Lubrication
4.1. How Lubrication Models Fail in the Case of OA
4.1.1. Fluid Film Lubrication
4.1.2. Boundary Lubrication
4.1.3. Mixed-Mode Lubrication
4.2. Concept of Tribological Rehydration
5. Relevance of AC Lubrication Theories to OA
Lubricant-Based Solutions
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Articular Cartilage | Reference | Healthy/Osteoarthritic | Natural OA/Induced OA | Cartilage Region | Type of Contact | Tribological Properties | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
COF | Lubricant | Lubrication Mechanism | Other Findings | ||||||
Bovine | [49] | H | - | Knee joint | MCA (stainless steel ball on cartilage) | 0.024 ± 0.004 | PBS | Not discussed | Fluid load fraction 0.81 ± 0.03 |
[77] | H | - | Knee joint | SCA (cartilage on glass) | PBS (0.218 ± 0.015), equine SF (0.071 ± 0.012), bovine SF (0.068 ± 0.013) | PBS, bovine SF, and equine SF | Biphasic lubrication was observed along with the mixed mode and boundary lubrications; however, full-film lubrication was not observed even at high speeds. | - | |
[74] | H | - | Knee joint | MCA (spherical glass lens on cartilage) | PBS (0.022 ± 0.010), SF (0.015 ± 0.004) | PBS and SF | Boundary lubrication is prominent when the thickness between the interface is lower. Fluid film lubrication is prominent when thickness is higher. | - | |
[78] | H | - | Knee joint | cSCA (cartilage plug on glass slide) | 0.011 ± 0.007 | PBS | Tribological rehydration due to the formation of wedges, which supports full-film lubrication. | - | |
[79] | H | - | Knee joint | MCA (stainless steel probe on cartilage) | 0.0272 ± 0.0006–0.1168 ± 0.0014 (3.2 mm radius probe) 0.0251 ± 0.0006–0.1337 ± 0.0016 (0.8 mm radius probe) | PBS | Lubrication due to fluid pressurization | - | |
[80] | OA | Induced with chondroitinase ABC and collagenase III | Knee joint | SCA (cartilage on glass) | Collagenase III (0.17 ± 0.04) and chondroitinase ABC (0.28 ± 0.02) | PBS | Biphasic behavior | - | |
[81] | OA | Induced with chondroitinase ABC | Knee joint | MCA (glass on cartilage) | Chondroitinase ABC (0.19 ± 0.02) | PBS | Time dependent interstitial pressurization | - | |
Porcine | [82] | H | - | Knee | SCA (cartilage on glass) | 0.001–0.11 | SF | Weeping lubrication | - |
[83] | H | - | Knee joint | MCA (glass on cartilage) | 0.04–0.14 | PBS | Not discussed | - | |
[84] | H | - | Knee joint | SCA (cartilage on glass) | 0.039 ± 0.017–0.069 ± 0.045 | PBS | Not discussed | - | |
[85] | OA | Induced with hyaluronidase, Chondroitinase ABC, alkaline protease | Knee joint | SCA (cartilage on glass) | 0.0025 ± 0.0012 (hyaluronidase), 0.0043 ± 0.0013 (chondroitinase ABC), 0.0070 ± 0.0003 (alkaline protease) | Normal saline | Boundary lubrication is possible due to the presence of various molecules on the surface of the cartilage. | - | |
Human | [86] | H | - | Knee joint | SCA (cartilage on glass) | 0.22 | PBS | Not discussed | - |
[87] | OA | Total joint replacement | Knee joint | MCA (cartilage on cartilage) and SCA (cartilage on glass) | MCA SF (0.019–0.02) MCA PBS (0.025–0.027) SCA SF (0.04) SCA PBS (0.09–0.12) | PBS and SF | SF lubricates better than PBS in both lesser and worse OA conditions due to its boundary lubrication properties. | - | |
[80] | OA | Total joint replacement | Knee joint | SCA (cartilage on glass) | 0.22 ± 0.01 (patient 1) and 0.23 ± 0.01 (patient 2) | PBS | Biphasic behavior | - | |
[88] | OA | Total joint replacement | Knee joint | AFM (polysterene spherical tip on cartilage) | 0.119 ± 0.036 for stage 0 (normal cartilage),0.151 ± 0.039 for stage 1, 0.158 ± 0.041 for stage 2, and 0.409 ± 0.119 for stage 3 | PBS | Not discussed | Surface roughness 137 ± 25 nm for stage 0 to 533 ± 196 nm for stage 3 |
Conventional Lubrication Model | Cartilage Lubrication Model | Physical Considerations | Samples | Experimental Condition | Physiological Relevance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fluid film lubrication model | Hydrodynamic lubrication | Occurs at high articulating speeds or low load | Horse stifle joint [115] Proximal interphalangeal joint of human finger [116] | Cartilage-on-cartilage experiment [115] Modified Stanton Pendulum [116] | Swinging phase of walking and running in human gait cycle |
Hydrostatic/weeping lubrication | Occurs at constant load over time | Closed-cell rubber foam soaked with soapy water [117] Ovine AC [118] Bovine AC [24] | Pin on plate (rubber on flat surface) [117] Cartilage on glass [118] Cartilage on cartilage [24] | Stance phase of walking and running in human gait cycle | |
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication | Occurs at high contact pressures and elastic deformation of AC | Human ankle joint [119] Soft material rubber [120] | Joint simulators [119] Roller bearing and soft surface [120] | Weight transfer phase due to walking, running, or jumping in human gait cycle | |
Micro-elastohydrodynamic lubrication | Occurs at the microscale interaction of AC and SF. Influenced due to change in surface topography, contact deformation, and load-bearing capacity. | Human ankle joint [121] | Joint simulator [121] | During heel strike, midstance, and toe-off of the human gait cycle. | |
Tribological rehydration | Modified version of hydrodynamic lubrication explaining the movements of SF into AC matrix during pressure distribution. | Bovine AC [78] Bovine, equine, porcine, ovine, and caprine [122,123] | Cartilage on flat surface [78,122,123] | Different phases of human gait cycle such as heel strike to toe-off, loading, unloading, and variable loading phases. | |
Boundary lubrication model | Boundary lubrication | This model considers the synovial constituents such as hyaluronic acid, lubricin, and glycoproteins. | Human knee joint [124] Human and bovine SF [125,126,127] | Modified flat-on-plate setup [124] Rheological properties of lubricin in SF [125] Pendulum oscillation in different SF concentrations [126] Hyaluronic acid rheology and concentration in SF [127] | It occurs mainly in the toe-off of the stance phase and other intermediate phases in the human gait cycle. |
Hydration lubrication | This model is an extension of boundary lubrication where it focuses mainly on the water molecules trapped inside the phospholipid layers of the synovial constituents. | Mica layers [128] | Surface force balance measurements [128] | It occurs in mainly in the toe-off of the stance phase and other intermediate phases in the human gait cycle. | |
Mixed lubrication model | Osmotic lubrication | Osmotic pressure gradients within cartilage matrix and interstitial fluid contributes to lubrication | Theory [129] | Theory [129] | It occurs in all the phases of human gait cycles, like the stance phase (heel strike to toe-off), the swing phase, transition phases, and dynamic movements. |
Squeeze film lubrication | Occurs when the joints are compressed, leading to interstitial fluid expulsion and redistribution and causing hydrodynamic pressure. | Glass lens with polymethylmethacrylate flats [99] | Cylinder on flat surface [99] | It occurs in the weight-bearing and relaxing phases of human gait cycles, such as heel strike and intermittent contact phases. | |
Boosted lubrication | This occurs with the combination of both squeeze film and boundary lubrication. | Mathematical model [130] | Mathematical model [130] | It occurs in prolonged stances of the human gait. | |
Biphasic lubrication | This considers cartilage with solid and fluid matrix and explains the load support in both strain and compressive forces. | Bovine AC [75,131,132,133] | Cartilage on metal (pin on plate) [75,131] Cartilage indentation with flat surface [132] Confined and unconfined compression [133] | It occurs in all the gait cycles of human movements. | |
Triphasic lubrication | This considers the electrostatic interactions introducing an ion phase to biphasic lubrication. | Models [134,135] | Models [134,135] | It occurs in all the gait cycles of human movements. |
Natural Synovial Constituent | Reference | Products/Molecular Composition | Type of Contact and Testing Apparatus | Lubricant Properties | Frictional Properties—Dynamic COF | Dose | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hyaluronic Acid | [213,214] | Synvisc One | Universal mechanical tester—Bruker (reciprocating test) | Dynamic viscosity—325.8 ± 3.4 Pa s Molecular weight 6000 kDa | 0.008–0.009 | Injections every 3 weeks (8 mg/mL) (2 mL) | Boundary lubrication is observed |
[214,215] | Eurflexxa | Custom tribometer (cartilage against glass sliding) | Dynamic viscosity—100.09 Pa s Molecular weight 2400–3600 kDa | 0.22–0.23 | Injections every 3 weeks (10 mg/mL) (2 mL) | Adsorption of molecules on the surface increased the viscosities and hence improved frictional properties | |
[214,215] | Supartz | Custom tribometer (cartilage against glass sliding) | Dynamic viscosity—2.11 Pa s Molecular weight 620–1170 kDa | 0.25 | Injections every 5 weeks (10 mg/mL) (2.5 mL) | - | |
[214] | Durolane | Molecular weight—100,000 kDa | - | 1 injection (20 mg/mL) (3 mL) | - | ||
Lubricin | [216] | mLub | Cartilage on glass surface sliding | Molecular weight ~107 kDa | 0.15 | - | Reduces friction and adhesion resulting in decreased cartilage degradation |
[217,218] | Proteoglycan 4 (Prg4) | Pendulum system | - | 0.01 | 1 injection every month (250 µg/mL–10 mg/mL) (1–2 mL) | Improves chondrocytes health and prevents stick-slip at the superficial zone reducing mechanical strain and avoiding cartilage degeneration | |
Chondroitin Sulphate | [219] | PBS + 100 mg/mL Chondroitin sulphate | Custom designed sliding test (glass on cartilage) | - | 0.05 | - | Higher concentration chondroitin sulphate can improve frictional behavior at the cartilage interface |
Phospholipids | [220] | Mica coated with aminothiol or poly-lysine | Surface force apparatus | - | 0.08–0.3 | - | The type of adsorption of the phospholipids on the surface determines how effective the frictional behavior |
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Rajankunte Mahadeshwara, M.; Al-Jawad, M.; Hall, R.M.; Pandit, H.; El-Gendy, R.; Bryant, M. How Do Cartilage Lubrication Mechanisms Fail in Osteoarthritis? A Comprehensive Review. Bioengineering 2024, 11, 541. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11060541
Rajankunte Mahadeshwara M, Al-Jawad M, Hall RM, Pandit H, El-Gendy R, Bryant M. How Do Cartilage Lubrication Mechanisms Fail in Osteoarthritis? A Comprehensive Review. Bioengineering. 2024; 11(6):541. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11060541
Chicago/Turabian StyleRajankunte Mahadeshwara, Manoj, Maisoon Al-Jawad, Richard M. Hall, Hemant Pandit, Reem El-Gendy, and Michael Bryant. 2024. "How Do Cartilage Lubrication Mechanisms Fail in Osteoarthritis? A Comprehensive Review" Bioengineering 11, no. 6: 541. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11060541