Biochemical and Hematological Markers in Workers with Chronical Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Colombia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Blood Pressure, Hematological and Biochemical Estimations
2.4. Chemicals and Reagents
2.5. Instrumental Analysis
2.6. Quality Control and Quality Assurance
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Population Characteristics
3.2. Laboratory and Anthropometric Parameters
3.3. Occupational Exposure to Pb and Cd
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Control (n = 59) | Mechanic (n = 59) | Garbage Recycler (n = 26) | Battery Recycler (n = 28) | Welder (n = 121) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age, years, median(range) | 43.0 (20.0–77.0) | 40.0 (20.0–68.0) | 48.0 (21.0–63.0) | 39.5 (18.0–63.0) | 47.0 (20.0–68.0) | 0.006 * |
Experience, years, median(range) | 11.0 (1.00–63.0) | 12.0 (0.58–59.0) | 20.0 (3.00–50.0) | 7.50 (1.00–32.0) | 16.0 (2.00–49.0) | <0.001 * |
Economic status, % | <0.001 * | |||||
Very poor | 64.4 | 64.4 | 100 | 64.3 | 59.5 | |
Poor | 18.6 | 30.5 | 0 | 28.6 | 33.1 | |
Middle-class | 15.3 | 5.1 | 0 | 7.1 | 6.6 | |
Upper middle-class | 1.7 | 0 (0) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.8) | |
Education, % | <0.001 * | |||||
Elementary | 6.8 | 52.5 | 88.5 | 71.4 | 9.92 | |
High School | 22 | 33.9 | 11.5 | 17.9 | 45.5 | |
Technical | 69.5 | 13.6 | 0 | 10.7 | 44.6 | |
Smoking, % | 10.1 | 5.1 | 19.2 | 25 | 13.2 | 0.112 |
Pb, µg/d, median(range) | 1.31 (≤MQL–56.6) | 3.00 (≤MQL–34.3) | 1.96 (≤MQL–15.0) | 15.1 (≤MQL–73.0) | 2.00 (≤MQL–59.0) | <0.001 * |
High Pb, % | <0.001 * | |||||
No | 84.7 | 62.7 | 88.5 | 17.9 | 75.2 | |
Yes (>5 µg/dL) | 15.3 | 37.3 | 11.5 | 82.1 | 24.8 | |
Cd, µg/L, median (range) | 0.82 (≤MQL–8.00) | 1.43 (≤MQL–8.00) | 1.44 (≤MQL–4.44) | 1.06 (≤MQL–6.20) | 1.32 (≤MQL–12.80) | <0.001 * |
High Cd, % | 0.287 | |||||
No | 89.8 | 91.5 | 100 | 92.9 | 93.4 | |
Yes (>5 µg/L) | 10.2 | 8.5 | 0 | 7.1 | 6.6 |
Normal Values | Control | Mechanic | Garbage Recycler | Battery Recycler | Welder | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameter | Median (Range) | p-Value | |||||
n = 59 | n = 59 | n = 26 | n = 28 | n = 121 | |||
HDL, mg/dL | 40.0–60.0 | 74.0 (58.0–86.3) | 75.3 (50.0–105.0) | N/A | 74.8 (47.0–98.6) | 75.9 (52.0–91.0) | 0.631 |
Cholesterol, mg/dL | <200 | 196 (126–284) | 194 (94.0–298) | 156 (93.2–251) | 186 (100–248) | 181 (112–299) | <0.001 ** |
Triglycerides, mg/dL | <150 | 134 (60.4–224) | 144 (51.0–348) | 112 (44.4–245) | 141 (75.1–249) | 141 (59.0–255) | 0.030 * |
Glucose, mg/dL | 100.0 | 79.0 (60.6–122) | 84.6 (69.5–139) | 87.3 (56.6–165) | 81.5 (68.0–132) | 89.0 (61.0–166) | <0.001 ** |
BMI | 20.0 | 26.1 (16.7–35.0) | 25.8 (17.9–36.9) | 25.2 (22.6–29.3) | 26.4 (17.0–39.5) | 26.9 (19.0–36.4) | 0.087 |
SBP, (mm Hg) | <120 | 130 (90–190) | 122 (90–170) | 120 (100–160) | 127 (110–190) | 118 (95–177) | <0.001 ** |
DBP, (mm Hg) | <130 | 83 (60–110) | 78 (60–102) | 81 (60–100) | 80 (65–143) | 78.0 (55–105) | 0.010 ** |
Abd Circ, cm | <95.0 | 103 (75.0–135) | 97.0 (73.0–136) | 110 (92.0–130) | 103 (90.0–133) | 99.0 (77.0–136) | <0.001 ** |
Hip-waist index | 0.96–0.99 | 0.92 (0.80–1.16) | 0.92 (0.80–1.14) | 0.91 (0.88–1.03) | 0.90 (0.86–1.10) | 0.92 (0.82–1.04) | 0.427 |
Platelets/109, cells/L | 150–450 | 214 (169–382) | 191 (152–326) | 201 (170–326) | 236 (159–391) | 197 (153–321) | 0.009 ** |
Hemoglobin, mg/dl | 13.8–17.2 | 14.6 (11.6–17.3) | 15.0 (13.0–16.3) | 14.6 (11.6–16.3) | 14.4 (12.0–16.3) | 15.0 (10.6–17.3) | 0.038 * |
Hematocrit,(vol% of RBC) | 40.0–54.0 | 44.0 (35.0–52.0) | 45.0 (32.0–49.0) | 44.0 (35.0–49.0) | 44.0 (38.0–50.0) | 45.0 (32.0–52.0) | 0.047 * |
Basophils, % | 0–3 | 24.1 | 39.0 | 17.9 | 46.4 | 24.0 | 0.023 * |
MetS, % | N/A | 14.6 | 29.6 | 31.6 | 38.9 | 22.1 | 0.171 |
Key Parameters | Non-Missing Data | All Patients | Normal Pb Levels | Elevated Pb Levels | Effect of Abnormal Lead | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Percentege (%) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
Basophile | 294 | 28.6 | 11.6 | 69.0 | 12.3 (6.62 to 23.7) | <0.001 |
Smoking | 276 | 13.4 | 14.6 | 10.7 | 0.81 (0.34 to 1.78) | 0.499 |
Median (range) | β (95% CI) | |||||
BMI | 291 | 26.4 (15.4–39.5) | 26.3 (15.4–36.9) | 26.8 (17.5–39.5) | 0.19 (−0.91 to 1.30) | 0.314 |
HDL, mg/dL | 219 | 75.7 (47.0–105.0) | 75.7 (50.0–105.0) | 76.0 (47.0–98.6) | 1.61 (−8.42 to 11.64) | 0.857 * |
Cholesterol, mg/dL | 294 | 185 (93–299) | 187 (93–284) | 178 (100–299) | 3.86 (−0.80 to 8.52) | 0.294 |
SBP, mm Hg | 272 | 122 (90–190) | 120 (90–190) | 125 (95–190) | 1.93 (−1.06 to 4.92) | 0.160 |
DBP, mm Hg | 272 | 80 (55–143) | 80 (60–110) | 80 (55–143) | −6.61 (−23.16 to 9.94) | 0.710 * |
Platelets/109, cells/L | 181 | 201 (152–391) | 210 (155–382) | 193 (152–391) | −2.55 (−6.74 to 1.63) | 0.012 |
Glucose, mg/dL | 306 | 86 (57–166) | 86 (61–166) | 86 (57–140) | −0.41 (−1.45 to 0.62) | 0.367 |
Hematocrit, (vol% of RBC) | 188 | 44.0 (32.0–52.0) | 44.0 (32.0–52.0) | 44.0 (32.0–50.0) | 0.19 (−0.91 to 1.30) | 0.884 |
Job Types | Cd | Pb | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |
Control workers | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Mechanic | 0.82 (0.22 to 2.87) | 0.71 (0.12 to 4.83) | 3.30 (1.40 to 8.34) | 3.20 (1.13 to 9.74) |
Garbage recycler | N.E. | N.E. | 0.45 (0.10 to 1.63) | 0.55 (0.10 to 2.57) |
Battery recycler | 0.68 (0.10 to 3.19) | 0.75 (0.07 to 7.03) | 25.56 (8.29 to 93.85) | 29.55 (7.17 to 145.64) |
Welder | 0.63 (0.21 to 1.98) | 0.61 (0.13 to 3.43) | 1.83 (0.83 to 4.37) | 1.42 (0.59 to 3.73) |
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Vergara-Murillo, F.; Martinez-Yanez, K.; Fortich-Revollo, A.; Paternina-Caicedo, A.; Johnson-Restrepo, B. Biochemical and Hematological Markers in Workers with Chronical Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Colombia. Toxics 2022, 10, 524. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10090524
Vergara-Murillo F, Martinez-Yanez K, Fortich-Revollo A, Paternina-Caicedo A, Johnson-Restrepo B. Biochemical and Hematological Markers in Workers with Chronical Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Colombia. Toxics. 2022; 10(9):524. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10090524
Chicago/Turabian StyleVergara-Murillo, Fredy, Katiana Martinez-Yanez, Alvaro Fortich-Revollo, Angel Paternina-Caicedo, and Boris Johnson-Restrepo. 2022. "Biochemical and Hematological Markers in Workers with Chronical Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Colombia" Toxics 10, no. 9: 524. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10090524