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8 November 2023

67 Pages

Exploring Plants with Flowers: From Therapeutic Nutritional Benefits to Innovative Sustainable Uses

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Carrera de Ingeniería en Biotecnología de los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Sede Quito, Campus El Girón, Av. 12 de Octubre N2422 y Wilson, Quito 170143, Ecuador
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Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Carrera de Obstetricia, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Iquique, Luis Sodiro N14-121, Quito 170146, Ecuador
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Instituto de Microbiología, Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales COCIBA, Universidad San Francisco de Quito USFQ, Quito 170901, Ecuador
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Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad de Sevilla, Carretera de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
Foods2023, 12(22), 4066;https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224066
This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilization of Plant Foods as Functional Ingredient
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Abstract

Flowers have played a significant role in society, focusing on their aesthetic value rather than their food potential. This study’s goal was to look into flowering plants for everything from health benefits to other possible applications. This review presents detailed information on 119 species of flowers with agri-food and health relevance. Data were collected on their family, species, common name, commonly used plant part, bioremediation applications, main chemical compounds, medicinal and gastronomic uses, and concentration of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and phenolic compounds. In this respect, 87% of the floral species studied contain some toxic compounds, sometimes making them inedible, but specific molecules from these species have been used in medicine. Seventy-six percent can be consumed in low doses by infusion. In addition, 97% of the species studied are reported to have medicinal uses (32% immune system), and 63% could be used in the bioremediation of contaminated environments. Significantly, more than 50% of the species were only analysed for total concentrations of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, indicating a significant gap in identifying specific molecules of these bioactive compounds. These potential sources of bioactive compounds could transform the health and nutraceutical industries, offering innovative approaches to combat oxidative stress and promote optimal well-being.

1. Introduction

Since time immemorial, flowers have played a fundamental role in society. They are appreciated for their beauty and used for ornamental purposes in various spaces, whether in pots, gardens, landscaping, or as cut flower arrangements in containers. Grown specifically for their striking appearance, distinctive foliage, and delicate fragrance, ornamental plants add charm and distinction to any environment. Their presence goes beyond mere aesthetics, as throughout history, flowers have been symbols of emotion, used in celebrations, expressions of love, condolences, and religious rituals, and providing benefits for emotional well-being and mental health [1].
In recent years, the market for edible flowers has experienced remarkable growth. This phenomenon can be attributed to several reasons, including the increasing availability of information on their nutritional value and bioactive potential [2,3]. In addition, there has been a growing interest in the potential health benefits of specific secondary metabolites and other compounds commonly found in flowers, such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds, vitamins C and E, saponins, or phytosterols [4]. Carotenoids and phenolic compounds are responsible for the different colours of flowers [5,6] stand out for their health properties and versatility in agri-food and health applications [7,8,9,10].
Flowers are used in gastronomy for their pigments (such as carotenoids, flavonoids, and betalains), which improve the appearance of dishes [11], and for their characteristic flavours and odours, which make them an alternative food source [12]. Some societies, such as Asian, Greek, Ancient Roman, French, and Italian, have a long-standing tradition of eating flowers [3]. However, for a flower to be edible, it must not contain dangerous levels of toxic compounds that could affect the health of those who consume it [13,14]. On the other hand, the consumption of parts of plants is typical in traditional medicine, mainly in medicinal infusions or decoctions [15,16]. Flowers are recognised as alternative food sources to improve health and contribute to food security [4]. As sustainability is a global priority, especially in food production, which is considered the most significant human pressure on the Earth [17], using cultivated flowers for gastronomic purposes can be aligned with a responsible approach towards the environment and general well-being.
This review aimed to collect relevant information on ornamental plant flowers with potential health promotion as botanicals, foods, or other uses, following sustainability principles and the circular economy. Plants from fifty families are covered, including Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae, as well as plants with edible flowers from the families Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Oleacaceae, Malvaceae, and Ranunculaceae. Therefore, Table 1 contains a compilation of common plants characterised by their flowers, with detailed information on the family, common name, place of origin, part of the commonly used plant, uses in bioremediation, main chemical compounds, medicinal uses, gastronomic uses, and concentration of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, together with the technique used for each flower species. In addition, data on carotenoids and phenolic compounds in different flower species are presented in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of flower possibilities and benefits in other areas, highlighting their potential in harmony with nature and general well-being.
Table 1. Description, relevant synonymous, phytoremediation uses, toxic compounds, medicinal, and gastronomic uses of flowers.
Table 2. Methods for quantifying and concentrating carotenoids and phenolics in studied plants.
Table 3. Some common carotenoids present in flowers.

2. Conceptualization

2.1. Use of Flowers for Therapeutic and Nutritional Purposes throughout History

The use of flowers in food and medicine has a long history dating back to antiquity. The earliest records of these uses date back to 4000 BC in Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures [439]. An emblematic example of the traditional use of a flower for medicinal purposes is chamomile (Chamomilla recutita L.), whose dried flowers have been used since ancient times to treat menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, haemorrhoids, and other ailments [440]. Similarly, cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.), known for its soothing and anticonvulsant properties, has been used therapeutically in many cultures. This plant was even included in the British and later American pharmacopoeia but was eliminated in the 20th century because of concerns about the risk of abuse and intoxication [441]. Similarly, flowers of the Asteraceae family (Achillea millefolium L., Arnica montana L., Bellis perennis L., Calendula officinalis L., Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All., Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench, and Taraxacum officinale L.) have been traditionally used in folk medicine for various therapeutic purposes [442].
Around 180 plant species belonging to 97 families have been reported as producing edible flowers [3]. The use of flowers in gastronomy is documented in various cultures, such as Roman, Greek, Chinese, Indian, and Central European [443,444], where they are used to enhance both the presentation and nutritional value of food. In ancient Rome, several roses were often used in omelettes and purées. In mediaeval France, marigolds were a common ingredient in salads. The stigmas of the saffron flower are one of the most commonly used colouring and flavouring agents in cooking. Similarly, violet petals were used to make sweets and colour sugar, while dandelion flowers were used in drinks and salads [12]. Furthermore, in the Mediterranean diet, some commonly consumed vegetables are flowers, such as artichokes, capers, broccoli, or cauliflower. Worldwide, edible flowers such as pansy, marigold, borage, nasturtium, mini rose, torenia, mini daisy, cosmos, clitoria, craving, begonia, sunflower, snapdragon, and squash blossom are appreciated and consumed in different countries such as Brazil, the United States, France, Italy, Portugal, China, and Japan [4].
Nowadays, thanks mainly to globalisation, the use of flowers in gastronomy is growing steadily (Figure 1). The inclusion of flowers in the culinary creations of renowned innovative chefs has attracted great attention in this field, leading to the emergence of companies specialising in producing flowers for this booming market [445]. Although flowers are now widely used as condiments, decorative elements, or for flavouring dishes, their potential as a source of nutrients or other valuable nutritional compounds must be further explored [446]. It is important to note that although there are several reviews documenting the use of many flowers as food or for therapeutic purposes [12,444,447]. To date, no official list of edible flowers has been developed, and no specific legislation on their use and applicability has been established by international bodies such as the FAO, WHO, FDA, or EFSA. As interest in the culinary use of flowers grows, an informed and responsible approach is needed to ensure their safety and sustainably exploit their nutritional and medicinal potential.
Figure 1. Parts of the plant used in food (A) and frequency of use in different dishes (B).

2.2. Post-Harvest Treatments Applied to Flowers

Thanks to the undoubted increase in demand for edible flowers, there is a growing body of research on how to extend their shelf life and improve their overall quality by enhancing post-harvest treatments [2,448,449]. This could benefit our health and improve their industrial development [2]. However, nowadays, despite their short life (early petal abscission and discoloration, flower wilt, dehydration, and tissue browning), edible flowers are usually sold fresh and chilled without any other postharvest treatment. In addition to refrigeration, other common post-harvest methods include crystallisation, freeze-drying, sugar canning, and preservation in distillates [4,450].
Several new food preservation technologies have been investigated to increase the shelf life of edible flowers. Among them are high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), irradiation, ultraviolet, ionising radiation, and new packaging alternatives [2,4]. On the other hand, other studies have evaluated how post-harvest treatments can affect bioactive compounds present in edible plants. For example, it has been shown that freeze-drying decreases the loss of carotenoids (in daylilies and marigolds), caffeic acid derivatives, and total phenolics (in purple coneflower) compared to hot-air drying [451,452,453].

2.3. Forms of Consumption

Edible flowers are mainly used fresh as decoration or a garnish for some meals, such as salads or light curry, adding colour and fragrance. In addition, they are also used for other culinary purposes, such as ingredients in bread, pancakes, sauces, jellies, syrups, vinegar, honey, oils, soups, infusions, flower-scented sugars, candied flowers, cheeses, ice cream, crisps, juices, rice, cakes, butter, pasta, wine, and flavoured liqueurs. Edible flowers can even be consumed dried, in ice cubes in cocktails, directly as vegetables, or in stir-fried dishes [3,4,12,454]. The flowers are typically eaten whole, but there are some species of which only some parts are adequate for consumption. For example, some parts of flowers are too bitter, such as the white parts of the roses and the base of the chrysanthemum petals, or too rough, such as some parts of the blueweed (Echium vulgare L.). Other examples of flowers that are not eaten whole include tulips (Tulipa spp.) and chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum) (only the petals are consumed), daisies (Bellis perennis L.) and garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.) (only the flower buds), and pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) (only the tiny and undeveloped fruits with flowers) [12,444]. Information about the use of flowers for food is summarised in Table 1.

2.4. Relevant Compounds with an Interest in Nutrition, Health Promotion, and Cosmetics

Using flowers as food is not exclusively for aesthetic reasons; the nutritional contribution should also be considered. Flowers provide important elements for nutrition and health. Some flowers contain proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins A, B, C, and E, mineral elements, and bioactives [447]. The concentration of minerals in flowers is such that, taking into account the Dietary Reference Intakes for an adult for magnesium (375 mg/day), phosphorus (700 mg/day), and potassium (2000 mg/day), it can be concluded that the consumption of some edible flowers could help to meet these daily requirements [444], although the boiling process of some flowers significantly reduces the mineral concentration [455].
The presence of compounds with nutritional interest differs across floral structures. Pollen has high concentrations of proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, among other nutrients. Nevertheless, the amount of pollen in the flower is very small, and in addition, it has a flat taste without individual characteristics. Nectar, which typically has a sweet taste, contains a balanced mixture of sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose), amino acids (mainly prolin), proteins, inorganic ions, lipids, organic acids, alkaloids, etc. Lastly, the petals and the rest of the flower may also be significant sources of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds [12,444].
Although before 2000, studies on edible flowers focused mainly on their nutrients, recent research has revealed the importance of studying compounds with bioactive properties. Phenolic compounds (flavonols, flavones, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids) and carotenoids are among the main bioactive compounds. The concentration of carotenoids and phenolic compounds in plants is detailed in Table 2, while the techniques used for quantification are shown in Figure 2. For both carotenoids (60.8%) and phenolics (54.4%), spectrophotometric techniques have been used. In the case of carotenoids, the focus has been on the study of leaves, while phenols have been studied in flowers. In addition, the chromatographic techniques used for carotenoids were mainly RRLC (55.0%) and HPLC (35%), while for phenols, the main techniques were HPLC (44.9%) and UHPLC (28.6%). In addition, information about carotenoids and phenolic compounds present in flowers is summarised in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively.
Figure 2. Study the distribution of carotenoids (A) and phenolic compounds (B) in different parts of the plant using spectrophotometric (ST) and chromatographic techniques (CT).
Table 4. Some common phenolics present in flowers.
These compounds usually account for their colour, either directly or indirectly through copigmentation [3,6,447]. In a recent study in which 125 flower species (of which 111 were edible) were surveyed for their colour (white, yellow, orange, pink, red, lilac, and blue), carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, it was observed that overall, flowers with high carotenoid contents did not contain high phenolic contents and vice versa [366]. Quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, myricetin, and their derivatives have been reported to be significant flavonols in flowers and represent their main class of flavonoids. The second major class of flavonoids in edible flowers is that of flavones, such as luteolin, apigenin, acacetin, and chrysoeriol. Among the anthocyanins, the most common in flowers are pelargonidin, cyanidin, and delphinidin. The phenolic acids in edible flowers include chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, caffeoylquinic acid, protocatechuic acid, and gallic acid (Table 4). Lastly, carotenoids are also common in flowers, mainly hydroxy xanthophylls, such as lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin, and xanthophylls containing hydroxyl and epoxide groups, such as violaxanthin, anteraxanthin, neoxanthin, and lutein-5,6-epoxide (Table 3). Provitamin A carotenes, such as α- and β-carotene, can also be found in flowers, as well as the colourless carotene phytoene [366], which has been largely neglected together with the colourless phytofluene in food science and nutrition but is attracting increasing attention [461]. Extraordinary high levels of the provitamin A carotenoids α-(1451.9 µg/g DW) and β-carotene (1362.2 µg/g DW) have recently been reported in Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas [366].
Both phenolic compounds and carotenoids have been attracting a great deal of interest in recent decades about their possible health-promoting biological actions [462], hence their interest in the development of innovative products for health or well-being, including nutricosmetics [8,463,464] (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Potential uses of flowers.
Phytosterols (β-sitosterol), alkaloids, lignans, neolignanes, coumarins, and bisabolol oxides A and B are other phytochemicals distributed in edible flowers. However, these compounds are usually present in smaller concentrations [3,447].

2.5. Beneficial Effects

Among the beneficial actions attributed to various flowers are antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, gastroprotective, antidiarrheal, anti-infective, antitumor, antispasmodic, analgesic, and astringent, among others [3,12,465] (Figure 4). However, studies have focused on the benefits these species can provide to the immune (31.5%), infectious (26.0%), and gastrointestinal (14.2%) systems. The flowers of begonias, roses, garden nasturtiums, daylily, calendula, Japanese rose, Daurian rose, daylily, and chrysanthemum might protect against oxidation, as there are studies indicating that they exhibit antioxidant capacity in vitro [6,12,447,466].
Figure 4. Plant species have activities beneficial to human health. Note: NS, Nervous system; RS, Respiratory system; US, Urinary system; CS, Cardiovascular system; (DS), Dermatological system; ES, Endocrine system; GS, Gastrointestinal system; HS, Haematological system; IFS, Infectious system; IS, Immune system; MSS, Musculoskeletal system.
Some studies indicate that certain edible flowers can exhibit anti-carcinogenic activity against liver, colon, brain, skin, bladder, prostate, or breast cancers [3,12,444]. Examples are flowers from hibiscus, rose, chrysanthemum, tagetes, cosmos (Cosmos sulphureus Cav.), coral vine (Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.), lesser bougainvillea (Bougainvillea glabra Choisy), jasmine, honeysuckle rose, cassia fistula, chives, calendula, and pomegranate [3,6,444,447,467].
Several flowers may exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Examples are Roselle, Hangzhou white chrysanthemum, wild chrysanthemum, honeysuckle, and daylily. Antiobesity effects have been observed in flowers such as Roselle, magnolia, and waterlily. According to the literature, other beneficial effects that can be derived from the consumption of flowers include neuroprotective, visceral injury prevention, anti-diabetic, and antimicrobial effects, among others [3,12,110,444,468]. Edible flowers have also been suggested as fibre food sources, which may be attractive for developing dietary supplements for athletes [468].
Others, such as Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., Chrysanthemum spp., Dahlia coccinea Cav., and Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai, could protect against diseases linked to obesity (such as, for example, sleep apnea, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia and type 2 diabetes), neurological (Alzheimer and Parkinson) [469] and liver and gastrointestinal disorders [435].
Finally, the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin, present in high concentrations in the petals of the tagete flowers (Tagetes erecta L.), can act as a filter that protects the macula from blue light and oxidative damage. Thus, various studies have suggested that they could reduce the risk of ocular pathologies, especially age-related macular degeneration [447]. These carotenoids also attract attention as they could be involved in cognitive benefits [470]. Information about the medical uses of flowers is summarised in Table 1.

2.6. Antinutrients or Toxic Compounds

Although there is a wide variety of edible flowers, care must be taken since some flowers are poisonous or contain antinutrients. In any case, it is essential to consider that there are some techniques that people have learned over the years to eliminate or diminish antinutrients and toxic compounds. For example, people reduce the toxicity of flowers from Erythrina species (4.9 and 6.3 trypsin inhibitors/mg sample) caused by alkaloids by cooking the flowers and eliminating the cooking water [455].
Regarding the possible effects of the toxic flowers, these can vary from minor effects on the skin (such as skin allergies, dermatitis, or skin lesions) to death when ingested. The toxicity of plants is mainly due to compounds such as alkaloids, tannins, alcohols, phytotoxins, glycosides, resins, nitrites, photosensitising substances, and calcium oxalates. Toxic compounds may be present in plants naturally or due to environmental pollution (pesticides, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, etc.), living agents, or diseases [447]. Examples of natural toxicity in flowers are the Adonis flower (Adonis aestivalis L.), which contains cardioactive steroids resembling digitalis, or Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum species), which contains sesquiterpene lactones [471]. Information on the toxicity of plants can be found in European Regulation EC No. 258/97. Examples of induced toxicity in flowers are Amaranthus hybridus (500.0 mg Pb/kg plant) and Medicago sativa L. (720.0 mg Pb/kg plant), species used for phytoremediation processes (recovery of heavy metals and other pollutants) [14]. On the other hand, since flowers are often consumed fresh or minimally processed, they can pose microbiological risks [472].
Antinutrients are substances that have a negative impact on our nutrition by preventing the absorption or assimilation of a nutrient or inactivating its effect [473]. Some antinutrients found in flowers are tannins, phytic acid, oxalate, lectins, and saponins. Tannins are phenolic compounds that inhibit the metabolism of digested and absorbed proteins. The flowers of the genus Rosa usually contain high levels of tannins, such as gallotannins and ellagitannins. The flowers of Woodfordia fruticosa Salisb. (0.2 g/100 g DW) and Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman (0.003 g/100 g DW) also have tannins [466,473] Phytic acid, which is present, for example, in E. superbum (0.1 g/100 g DW), decreases the bioavailability of some minerals and proteins, but its content can be reduced by processing [473]. On the other hand, oxalate hinders calcium absorption and stimulates the formation of kidney stones. Although in low concentration, oxalate is present in edible flowers such as Parkia biglobosa, usually consumed in Nigeria; E. superbum (0.03 g/100 g DW); and Woodfordia fruticosa (0.06 g/100 g DW) [473,474]. Lectins, a major family of protein antinutrients, are found, for example, in the flower of A. xalapensis [455]. Saponins reduce glucose and cholesterol uptake, among other nutrients [473], and are present in the flowers of A. salmiana and Y. filifera [455]. In any case, it is important to note that compounds traditionally considered antinutrients could also exert beneficial effects. For example, under certain conditions, reducing the absorption of nutrients such as glucose or specific lipids could be desirable [475]. Information about toxic compounds in flowers is summarised in Table 1.

2.7. Flowers, Climate Change, Sustainability, and the Circular Economy

Flowers can become alternative sources of health-promoting dietary sources and sustainably contribute to food security, as suggested in an insightful review that addresses important topics of the 17 goals of the United Nations to transform our world included in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [4]. The agri-food industry is responsible for the biggest pressure caused by humans on Earth, especially due to its global freshwater land usage and contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. Paradoxically, 820 million people have insufficient food, and many more have unhealthy dietary patterns that considerably increase the risk of developing diseases and premature death. In this sense, global scientific goals towards a worldwide transformation of the agri-food system, aligned with global agendas, including the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement, are being advocated [17]. In this scenario, the classical ‘take-make-consume and dispose’ linear economy model needs to be replaced by a circular economy model that ‘keeps the added value in products for as long as possible and eliminates waste’ [476].

2.7.1. Flowers and Biodiversity

Taking advantage of biodiversity (the variety of life at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels) is very important in this scenario. Biodiversity for food and agriculture is a subset that contributes directly and indirectly to agri-food. It encompasses “domesticated plants and animals raised in crop, livestock, forest, and aquaculture systems; harvested forest and aquatic species; wild relatives of domesticated species; other wild species harvested for food and other products; and what is known as ‘associated biodiversity’, the wide range of organisms that live in and around food and agricultural production systems, sustaining them and contributing to their production. Agriculture is considered here to include crop and livestock production, forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture. The importance of biodiversity in this context is at different levels, as many untapped edible species are very nutritious, are adapted to diverse edaphoclimatic conditions, and provide important ecosystem services [477]. Flowers play a relevant role in maintaining and promoting biodiversity, acting as pollen sources visited by bees and other social insects [4].

2.7.2. Flowers and Phytoremediation of Soils and Wastewater

Food production is estimated to account for ~40% of land and 70% of freshwater use, which are precious and increasingly scarce resources. Therefore, contamination of soil and water is an important problem. More specifically, the elevated presence of heavy metals, other minerals, or organic pollutants in soils used for food production is an important environmental problem, a great threat to life on earth, and poses health risks when they enter the food chain. Being non-biodegradable, heavy metals accumulate in the environment and enter the food chain. This is undesirable from environmental and health standpoints, as some heavy metals are carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and endocrine disruptors, while others cause neurological and behavioural changes. Naturally present or derived from anthropogenic sources, such metals can be reduced using physical and chemical approaches. However, these are costly and laborious and can lead to disturbances in physicochemical and microbial soil characteristics. Phytoremediation is gaining importance due to its public acceptance, efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and eco-friendliness. It can also reduce organic pollutants such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, and pesticides [478].
It uses green plants and associated microbes to minimise the toxic effects of potential contaminants in the environment. There are several ways to remediate. Phytostabilisation or phytoimmobilisation refers to the decrease in the mobility or/and bioavailability of a metal, which impairs its leaching to water or its entry into the food chain. Once uptaken by roots, a specific heavy metal may either be phytoimmobilised there or translocated to aerial parts. Phytovolatilisation involves the conversion of the metal into a volatile form and its release into the atmosphere through stomata. This technique is primarily helpful for Hg, although the volatilised metal can eventually return to the soil through precipitation. Phytodegradation is the degradation of organic pollutants by plants with the help of enzymes. Rhizodegradation refers to the breakdown of organic contaminants in the soil by microorganisms in the rhizosphere. Phytodesalination refers to the use of halophytic plants for the removal of salts from salt-affected soils to enable them to support normal plant growth [478,479]. Plants are categorised based on their metal uptake mechanisms: excluders restrict heavy metal uptake and accumulation to the shoot; indicators/accumulators accumulate them in aerial parts comparatively the same as the soil levels; and hyperaccumulators uptake and translocate the metals to shoots and leaves without toxic symptoms. Different detoxification strategies include compartmentalisation, deposition, distribution, and stabilisation within cell walls, vacuoles, and metabolically inactive tissues. Plants of great value in floriculture from the Asteraceae family (for instance, Tagetes erecta, Calendula officinalis, and Chrysanthemum indicum) have been reported to tolerate heavy metal soil pollution [480].
Phytoextraction is considered the most important phytoremediation approach and can be more suitable for commercial applications. Ideally, plants selected for phytoextraction should be widely distributed, easy to cultivate, rapidly grow, produce important amounts of biomass, and be poly-harvest. About metals, they should be hyperaccumulators of heavy metals, translocate them from root to shoot, and tolerate their toxic effects well. Additionally, plants should be resistant to biotic stresses, well adapted to edaphoclimatic conditions, and not attractive to herbivores to avoid the entry of heavy metals into the food chain. Although promising, phytoremediation has yet to be widely used at a large scale due to limitations of diverse nature (slow-growing species, low bioavailability of the metals, and long times to achieve decontamination, among others). New approaches are being evaluated, including assistance with chelators, biochar, bacteria, fungi, microbes, and transgenic plants [479,480].
Plant biomass enriched with phytoextracted heavy metals can be incinerated for energy and ash recovery. The latter can be considered bio-ore and be further processed for extracting heavy metals, a process called phytomining [478,480].
Phytoremediation has also been proven to be cost-effective and technically feasible in the remediation of heavy metal pollution in water quality issues, including wastewater treatment [478,480]. Reusing cut flowers and floral waste as a neat bio-adsorbent and activated carbon for removing the antibiotic levofloxacin and lead ions from water with promising results has been recently described [481].
As can be seen in Table 1, there are many reported uses of plants with ornamental flowers in the phytoremediation of various pollutants (heavy metals, radioactive elements, polycyclic aromatics and other hydrocarbons, benzene, textile dyes, oils, fertilisers, carbamazepine, insecticides, herbicides, and dioxins), which widens the use of such plants beyond ornamental, nutritional, or culinary purposes, which is an advantage in a circular economy model where the use of resources for several applications is desired. Interestingly, they can be found in locations with marked edaphoclimatic conditions, including arctic regions (Canada, Siberia), temperate regions (Mediterranean Basin, Central and Eastern Europe), or subtropical or tropical regions (Caribbean Basin) (Table 1).
Although the uptake of heavy metals and other pollutants could sometimes affect the use of flowers for human consumption (in those cases where contaminants are transferred to aerial plants from the roots and they are rich in unsafe concentrations), others are feasible, including pot plants, cut flowers, essential oils, perfumes, air freshener production, metal phytomining, and feedstock in silk production [480].

2.7.3. Flowers and Dying Fabrics

The replacement of synthetic dyes with more natural alternatives in textiles is gaining acceptance to reduce the negative environmental impacts and toxicity associated with the latter. Besides, some natural extracts can exhibit properties (antioxidative, antimicrobial, UV-light absorption, etc.), which can be interesting for developing functional fabrics with added value. The application of natural dyes in the textile industry is gaining popularity due to the increasing awareness of the environmental, ecological, and pollution caused by synthetic dyes. Different conditions of pH, temperature, salt, time, chemical levels, and biomordants have been tested for the dying of wool with rose flowers. As a result, different colour hues were obtained, some with good colour strength. [482]. Kigelia africana flowers have also been studied as possible materials for the functional colouration of textile materials, with promising results in terms of fastness, colour strength, antibacterial, antioxidant, and UV-protection properties [483].

2.7.4. Other Potential Uses

Waste jasmine flowers have recently been tested to produce bioethanol mediated by immobilised yeasts. Pretreatments that included alkalinisation, heating, and enzymatic hydrolysis were evaluated to favour the accessibility of the carbohydrate fraction, and response surface methodology was applied to assess the interactions of different variables to better understand the bioethanol yield [484].
Saffron purple petals have been evaluated as a possible environmental-friendly additive for bentonite-based drilling fluids, and significant enhanced rheological, filtration, and corrosion protection properties were observed.
Drilling fluids are circulated in boreholes to help perform an efficient drilling operation with minimal damage to prospective formations [485].
Porous carbon nanosheets have been obtained from the carbonisation of a paper flower. The materials exhibited interesting properties for their potential use in energy storage and dye removal [486].

3. Conclusions and Future Recommendations

Flowers have played a fundamental role in human culture over the centuries, finding value in both their aesthetic appeal and their nutritional and therapeutic properties. A vivid example of this duality is theprized Tagetes erecta, whose flowers are commercially exploited both for their exquisite ornamental beauty and for their remarkable lutein content, a valuable carotenoids widely used in industry as a dye and as a key component of health-promoting dietary supplements. In a similar context, the flowers of Renealmia alpinia have emerged as botanical gems, standing out as rich sources of provitamin A carotenoids such as α- and β-carotene [9,366]. This discovery has led to growing interest both in the culinary field, where they are used to enrich dishes, and in the search for health-promoting bioactive compounds [3,6,444]. However, it is important to recognise that while flowers offer a wealth of benefits, some of them contain potentially toxic compounds, which means that their use in gastronomy and therapy must be approached with caution. One particularly promising aspect is the medicinal potential of a group of 115 species of flowers, all of which have properties that suggest their usefulness in the treatment of various conditions. This opens an exciting field of research where new molecules may be discovered.
However, they can also be used for other purposes at different points in their life cycles, including as phytoremediators [480], dying agents for textiles [483], or feedstocks for bioethanol production, among others [484]. Although recent research on these topics is promising to pave the way for the circular use of flowers to produce sustainable and health-promoting foods, there is still a long way to go. Of course, lifecycle assessments must be performed, and more scientific evidence is required to bridge the gap between traditional uses, safety, and mechanical effects.
Some questions remain, such as:
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How bioavailable are health-promoting compounds from flowers? And how do post-harvest, industrial, or culinary treatments affect such bioavailability? Can ingesting large amounts of flowers significantly raise plasma and tissue levels of health-promoting compounds?
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Can post-harvest, industrial, or culinary treatments make potentially toxic flowers edible? Can biorefinery approaches be used to obtain added-value products from potentially toxic flowers?
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What plants can be used for phytoremediation and to provide health-promoting rich flowers without posing health risks due to excessive accumulation of pollutants in edible parts?
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What amount of floral waste is necessary for its alternative circular use to be economically viable? How can smaller amounts of waste be used alternatively?
-
What floral species can be used to cultivate areas with harsh edaphoclimatic conditions and/or enrich biodiversity by attracting pollinators?

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.C.-C., A.J.M.-M. and M.C.; methodology, P.M.-B.; software, G.M. investigation, M.M. and M.V.; resources, E.C.-C. and A.J.M.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, E.C.-C.; writing—review and editing, E.C.-C.; supervision, A.J.M.-M., I.M.V. and P.R.-S.; project administration, E.C.-C. and A.J.M.-M.; funding acquisition, E.C.-C. and A.J.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ecuadorian Corporation for the Development of Research and the Academy CEDIA within the CEPRA-XIII-2019-09-Flores Project “Caracterización físico-química y pruebas de bioactividad de especies florales andinas con potencial alimenticio y efecto preventive de ciertas enfermedades humanas ”; the Spanish State Secretariat of Research, Development and Innovation (Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (CaRed, BIO2015-71703-REDT) and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (CaRed, BIO2017-90877-REDT); the Ibero-American Programme for Science, Technology and Development (CYTED, http://www.cyted.org) for the funding of the IBERCAROT network (http://carotenoides.us.es/ref.112RT445) and USFQ-COCIBA grants.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

PMB holds a postdoctoral contract within the framework of the Aid Program for the recruitment, incorporation, and mobility of human capital in R+D+I, an action financed by the Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento, and Universidades de la Junta de Andalucía (Ref. POSTDOC_21_00352).

Conflicts of Interest

A.J.M.-M. carries out consultancy work for agro-food, cosmetic, and biotechnological companies. The remaining authors declare no conflict of interest concerning this study.

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