Research Progress of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Edible Oil—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Classification
3. Legislation
4. Sources of PFASs in Edible Oil
4.1. PFAS Accumulation in Oil Crops
4.2. PFAS Accumulation in Animal Edible Oil Raw Materials
4.3. Contamination of PFASs during Edible Oil Production
4.4. Migration from Oil Contact Materials to Edible Oil
5. PFAS Contamination in Edible Oil
6. Pre-Treatment Methods for PFAS Analysis in Edible Oil
6.1. Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)
6.2. Ion Pair Extraction (IPE)
6.3. Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction (DLLME)
6.4. Alkaline Digestion
6.5. Liquid-Solid Extraction (LSE)
6.6. Solid Phase Extraction (SPE)
6.6.1. Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction (d-SPE)
6.6.2. Magnetic Solid-Phase Extraction (MSPE)
6.7. QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe)
7. Determination of PFAS in Edible Oil
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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PFASs | Classification | R | Examples | Structural Formula | CAS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ionic PFASs | Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid, PFCAs | –COOH | Pentadecafluorooctanoic acid, PFOA | 335-67-1 | |
Perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids, PFSAs | –SO3H | Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, PFOS | 1763-23-1 | ||
Perfluoroalkane sulfinic acids, PFSIAs | –SO2H | Perfluorooctane sulfinic acid | 647-29-0 | ||
Perfluoroalkyl phosphonic acids, PFPAs | –P(=O)(OH)2 | Perfluorooctyl phosphonic acid, PFOPA | 40143-78-0 | ||
Perfluoroalkyl phosphinic acids, PFPIAs | –P(=OH)(CnF2n+1) | Bis(heptadecafluorooctyl) phosphinic acid | 500776-69-2 | ||
Perfluoroalkane sulfonamides, FASAs | –SO2NH2 | Perfluorooctane sulfonamide, FOSA | 754-91-6 | ||
Non-Ionic PFASs | Perfluoroalkane sulfonyl fluorides, PASFs | –SO2F | Perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride, PFOSF | 307-35-7 | |
Perfluoroalkanoyl fluorides, PAFs | –COF | Perfluorooctanoyl fluoride | 335-66-0 | ||
Perfluoroalkyl iodides, PFAIs | –I | Perfluorooctyl iodide, PFOI | 507-63-1 | ||
Perfluoroalkyl aldehydes, PFALs | –CHO | (Perfluorooctane)-1-carbaldehydle | 63967-40-8 | ||
Perfluoroalkyl esters, PFEs | –COOR | Perfluorooctanoic acid methyl ester | 376-27-2 | ||
Fluorotelomer alcohol, FTOHs | –OH | 1H,1H,2H,2H-Perfluorooctanol, 6:2 FTOH | 647-42-7 |
District | Year | Regulation | Restriction | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Global | 2009 | Stockholm Convention on POPs | PFOS and its salts were listed in Annex B (restriction). | [44] |
2019 | Stockholm Convention on POPs | PFOA, its salts, and PFOA-related compounds were listed in Annex A (elimination). | [45] | |
2022 | Stockholm Convention on POPs | PFHxS, its salts, and PFHxS-related compounds were listed in Annex A (elimination). | [46] | |
Europe | 2008 | EFSA | The tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 150 ng kg−1 bw.d−1 (body weight/day) for PFOS and 1500 ng kg−1 bw.d−1 for PFOA was established. | [47] |
2018 | EFSA | The tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for PFOS is 13 ng kg−1 bw. wk−1 (body weight/per week) and for PFOA is 6 ng kg−1 bw. wk −1. | [48] | |
2020 | EFSA | The TWI of 4.4 ng kg−1 b.w. for the sum of PFOA, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), PFHxS, and PFOS was suggested. | [49] | |
2023 | EU | The maximum levels for the sum of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, and PFHxS in meat and eggs were set to be 1.3–45 μg kg−1 wet weight. | [50] | |
USA | 2009 | USEPA | The minimum risk levels of PFOA and PFOS in drinking water were set to be 0.4 and 0.2 μg L−1. | [51] |
2015 | USEPA | The minimum risk levels of PFOA and PFOS in drinking water were set to be 0.07 μg L−1. When both PFOA and PFOS are found in drinking water, the combined concentrations of PFOA and PFOS should be below 0.07 μg L−1. | [52] | |
2021 | TPCH | TPCH has proclaimed that packing materials and their components must not incorporate PFASs. | [54] | |
2021 | FDA | The FDA declared it would phase out certain short-chain PFASs in the food market by 2024. | [55] | |
2022 | USEPA | The minimum risk levels of PFOA, PFOS, GenX chemicals, and PFBS in drinking water were advised to be 0.000004, 0.00002, 0.01, and 2 μg L−1. | [53] | |
2023 | USEPA | The USEPA announced the proposed action of PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, PFNA, GenX chemicals, and PFBS into the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR). | [58] | |
Asia | 2019 | MEPC | Prohibit the production, circulation, use, and import or export of PFOS, its salts, and PFOSF except for acceptable uses. | [59] |
2023 | MEPC | PFOS, its salts, PFOSF, PFOA, its salts, PFOA-related compounds, PFHxS, its salts, and PFHxS-related compounds were included in the list of key regulated new pollutants (version 2023). | [56] | |
2021 | CSCL | PFOA and its salts were added to the list of Class I Specified Chemical Substances (the import, manufacture, or sale of products containing Class I substances is prohibited). | [57] |
District | Matrix | PFSAs | PFCAs | Reference | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C4a | C6a | C7a | C8a | C4b | C5 | C6b | C7b | C8b | C9 | C10 | C11 | C12 | C13 | C14 | C16 | C18 | |||
Norway | Margarine | <1.6 | 1.3 | - | 2.3 | 51 | 51 | 2.5 | <5.6 | 12 | <13 | <8.6 | <16 | <16 | - | - | - | - | [109] |
Netherlands | Vegetable oil | <0.9 | <2 | - | <3 | <32 | <28 | <3 | 1 | <3 | <0.1 | <0.6 | <2 | <1 | - | - | - | - | [110] |
Butter | <3 | 16 | - | 33 | <31 | <43 | 20 | 5 | 16 | 2 | 6 | <3 | 2 | - | - | - | - | ||
Spain | Sunflower oil | - | ND | - | ND | ND | - | ND | - | ND | ND | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | - | [111] |
Olive oil | <1.2 | <0.7 | - | 1.1 | <43 | <5.9 | <14 | <140 | <140 | <38 | <3.8 | <14 | <4.2 | <6.1 | <6.2 | <48 | <41 | [112] | |
Finland | Fish oil | - | - | - | ND | - | - | - | - | ND | - | - | ND | - | ND | ND | - | - | [113] |
Sweden | Fats (butter, margarine, cooking oil, and mayonnaise) | - | <2.3 | - | 13 | - | - | 4.3 | <2.3 | <5.4 | <3.0 | <3.6 | 5.8 | <2.3 | <2.3 | <2.3 | - | - | [114] |
Butter | - | 2.6–18 | - | 8.1–21.3 | - | - | - | - | 8.1–56 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [79] | |
Italy | Olive oil | - | - | - | <500 | - | - | - | - | <500 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [115] |
Peanut oil | - | - | - | <500 | - | - | - | - | <500 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Czech Republic | Edible oils | ND-1600 | ND-1800 | - | ND-1700 | - | - | ND-1400 | ND-2700 | ND-1500 | ND-2400 | ND-1700 | ND-1700 | ND-2100 | - | - | - | - | [116] |
Butter | ND-1600 | ND-1800 | - | ND-1700 | - | - | ND-1400 | ND-2700 | ND-1500 | ND-2400 | ND-1700 | ND-1700 | ND-2100 | - | - | - | - | ||
China Guangzhou | Cooking oil | - | - | - | ND-20 pg mL−1 | - | - | - | - | ND-20 pg mL−1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [117] |
China Guiyang | Rapeseed oil | - | 140 | ND | 390 | 130 | 120 | - | - | 90 | 940 | - | - | 90 | - | - | 100 | 160 | [69] |
Blended oil | - | 240 | ND | 450 | 110 | ND | - | - | 80 | 1770 | - | - | ND | - | - | ND | ND | ||
Peanut oil | - | 170 | ND | 290 | ND | ND | - | - | ND | ND | - | - | ND | - | - | ND | ND | ||
Corn oil | - | 120 | ND | 210 | ND | ND | - | - | ND | ND | - | - | ND | - | - | 110 | 140 | ||
Sunflower oil | - | ND | ND | 220 | ND | ND | - | - | ND | ND | - | - | ND | - | - | ND | ND | ||
Lard oil | - | 230 | 210 | 330 | ND | ND | - | - | - | 710 | - | - | 90 | - | - | 100 | ND | ||
Beef tallown | - | 130 | ND | 290 | ND | ND | - | - | - | ND | - | - | ND | - | - | 110 | ND | ||
China Beijing | Blended oil | - | - | ND | - | - | - | ND-60 | ND | ND-430 | ND-4640 | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - | [60] |
Soybean oil | - | - | ND-20 | - | - | - | ND-440 | ND-40 | 130–160 | 20–470 | ND-40 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Peanut oil | - | - | ND | - | - | - | 80–100 | ND | 180–240 | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Sesame oil | - | - | 20–30 | - | - | - | ND-490 | 50–80 | 150–500 | 30–1060 | 160–510 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Corn oil | - | - | ND | - | - | - | ND-450 | ND | 150–170 | ND-20 | ND-40 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Sunflower oil | - | - | ND | - | - | - | 400–500 | ND | 400–500 | ND | 400–600 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Olive oil | - | - | - | <1.6 | - | ND | - | ND | - | ND | - | ND | [35] | ||||||
Sesame oil | - | - | - | 405 | - | 112 | - | 2018 | - | 2458 | - | 1841 | |||||||
Corn oil | - | - | - | ND | - | ND | - | <0.5 | - | 17 | - | 7 | |||||||
Camellia seed oil | - | - | - | <1.6 | - | 57 | - | 21 | - | 9 | - | 5 | |||||||
Soybean oil | - | - | - | ND | - | ND | - | ND | - | 8 | - | 7 | |||||||
Blended oil (80% Corn; 20% sesame) | - | - | - | 432 | - | ND | - | 8 | - | ND | - | ND | |||||||
Blended oil (70% Corn; 30% sesame) | - | - | - | 588 | - | 37 | - | 21 | - | 6 | - | <0.3 | |||||||
Vegetable oil | - | - | - | ND | - | ND | - | <0.5 | - | ND | - | ND | |||||||
China Shandong | Cod liver oil | - | - | - | - | - | - | ND | 2100–6200 | 40,000 | 9000 | 8200 | 3400–5800 | 3400–6300 | [118] | ||||
Fish Oil | - | - | - | - | - | - | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | ||
Poland | Sunflower oil | ND | ND | - | ND | 1062 | ND | ND | ND | 640 | 565 | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - | [30] |
Rapeseed oil | 3 | ND | - | 16 | ND | ND | ND | 250 | 110 | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Olive oil | ND | ND | - | ND | 962 | ND | 49 | ND | 27 | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Margarine | ND | ND | - | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 250 | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Mix of margarine and butter | ND | ND | - | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 270 | ND | ND | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Extraction | Extraction Solvent/Material | Clean-Up | Clean-Up Material | Recovery (%) | Analytical Instrumentation | LOD (pg g–1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LLE | Basified water/methanol, dichloromethane | - | - | - | LC-MS/MS | 10–2500 pg mL– 1 | [117] |
Acetonitrile, n-pentane | SPE | DSC-18 SPE cartridge (Sigma-Aldrich) | 37–120 | HPLC-MS/MS | 1400–2700 | [116] | |
Acetonitrile | GPC+DSPE | C18, GCB | 60–129 | LC-ES-MS/MS | 4–400 | [60] | |
Acetonitrile | d-SPE | ENV SPE bulk sorbent | 72–104 | micro-HPLC-MS/MS | 2–75 | [30] | |
Basified methanol/water (1:1, v/v, containing 1% NH3H2O) | MSPE | Fe3O4@SiO2@ Quaternary ammonium (QTA) | 85.0–98.5 | LC-MS/MS | 1.5–20 | [118] | |
Methanol | MSPE | Fe3O4@UiO-66-NH2@DES | 74.9–111 | GC-MS/MS | 2.81–34.3 | [119] | |
DLLME | Superparamagnetic nanofluid | DES based nano Fe3O4 fluid | 90–109 | UPLC-QTOF-MS | 0.3–1.6 | [35] | |
Ion pair extraction | MTBE | SPE | Florisil and graphitised carbon | 62–91 | UPLC-ESI-MS/MS | 2.3–5.4 | [114] |
MTBE | - | - | - | HPLC-ESI-MS/MS | - | [115] | |
Alkaline digestion | Sodium hydroxide in methanol | SPE | WAX, ENVI-carb | - | UPLC-ESI- MS/MS | - | [109,112] |
LSE | Tetrahydrofuran and water | SPE | A weak anion exchange resin and ENVI-carb | - | LC-EI-MS/MS | - | [110] |
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Han, Y.; Cao, X. Research Progress of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Edible Oil—A Review. Foods 2023, 12, 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12132624
Han Y, Cao X. Research Progress of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Edible Oil—A Review. Foods. 2023; 12(13):2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12132624
Chicago/Turabian StyleHan, Yingyi, and Xueli Cao. 2023. "Research Progress of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Edible Oil—A Review" Foods 12, no. 13: 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12132624