A Comprehensive Assessment of Food Parenting Practices: Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Version of the HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey and Associations with Children’s Weight and Food Intake
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedures
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. The HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey
2.3.2. Food Intake
2.3.3. Child’s Anthropometric Data
2.4. Statistical Anaysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Factorial Structure of the Portuguese Version of the HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey
3.2.1. Coercive Control Scales
3.2.2. Autonomy Support Scales
3.2.3. Structure Scales
3.3. Construct Validity
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Excluded Items | Original Factor | Reason for Exclusion |
---|---|---|
Autonomy Support Scales | ||
How often do you have to encourage your child to eat things s/he does not like (because those foods are good for him/her)? 1 | Reasoning | Punctuated alone or not related |
I negotiate with my child how much s/he can leave on his/her plate. 2 | Reasoning | |
This is a policy in our home: My child has to at least try or taste new foods. 2 | Encouragement | |
How often do you encourage vegetable consumption by making a game of eating vegetables or telling a story around vegetables? 1 | Reasoning | Low Cronbach’s α |
How often do you suggest your child have a fruit and vegetable at snack time? 1 | Nutrition education | |
I decide the times when my child eats his/her meals. 2 | Guided choices: When food is eaten | Low Cronbach’s α |
As a parent, I decide the kinds of food my child eats. 2 | Guided choices: What food is eaten | |
Structure Scales | ||
What do family dinners on weekdays look like at your home? 3 | Family eating | Asymmetry/kurtosis |
What do family dinners on weekends look like at your home? 3 | Family eating | |
When schedules allow, how often do you or another adult in your household sit and eat lunch at home with your child? 1 | Family eating | Low factor loading |
How often do you try not to eat unhealthy foods when your children are around? 1 | Modeling | |
How often do you drink soda (regular or diet) or other sweetened beverages at meals and snacks with your child? 1 (R) | Modeling | |
How often do you bake, broil, barbeque, or steam food? 1 | Planning/Preparation of Healthy Meals | |
How often do you encourage vegetable consumption by serving vegetables in an interesting or attractive way? 1 | Attractive presentation of foods | |
Do you limit snacking to designated places in your home? 1 | Meal setting | |
How often do you decorate your table with a tablecloth? 1 | Eating Area/Physical Space | |
How often do you decorate your table with placemats? 1 | Eating Area/Physical Space | |
Dinner time is usually a pleasant time for the family. 2 | Atmosphere of meals | Punctuated alone or not related |
How often do you serve packaged, canned, or frozen dinners as the main dish of a meal? 1 (R) | Planning/Preparation of Healthy Meals | |
When you serve potatoes, how often are they fried, like French fries or hash browns? 1 (R) | Planning/Preparation of Healthy Meals | |
How often does your family eat fast food for the main meal each week? 4 (R) | Planning/Preparation of Healthy Meals | |
How often do you restrict (or try to restrict) your child’s access to fruit juice? 1 | Rules and Limits around Unhealthy Foods | |
I insist my child eats meals at the table. 1 | Meal setting | |
How I eat does not particularly influence my child’s habits. 2 (R) | Modeling | Low Item-total |
How often do you encourage vegetable consumption by serving vegetables hidden in other foods? 1 | Attractive presentation of foods |
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Parents/Caregivers | ||
---|---|---|
Sex | Female, n (%) | 173 (94.0) |
Male, n (%) | 11 (6.0) | |
Age (years), mean (SD) | 37.0 (6.1) | |
With university degree, n (%) | 92 (50.0) | |
Children | ||
Sex | Female, n (%) | 88 (47.8) |
Male, n (%) | 96 (52.2) | |
Age (years), mean (SD) | 6.4 (2.5) | |
Weight status, n(%) 1 | Underweight | 0 (0.0) |
Normal weight | 92 (63.9) | |
Overweight | 30 (20.8) | |
Obesity | 22 (15.3) |
Portuguese Version of Coercive Control Scales | Original Factor | Factor Loadings | |
---|---|---|---|
Restriction (α = 0.78; MIIC = 0.50) | How often do you restrict (or try to restrict) your child’s food intake so that she or he will not gain weight? 1 | Restriction | 0.631 |
How often do you tell your child not to eat something because it will make him or her fat? 1 | Restriction | 0.914 | |
How many times have you told your child to eat less food or eat different foods to lose weight or to keep from gaining weight? 1 | Restriction | 0.911 | |
Soothing with food (α = 0.77; MIIC = 0.46) | I give my child something to eat or drink when she or he is bored or worried, even if I know she or he is not hungry. 2 | Soothing with food | 0.773 |
Offering my child something to eat is one of the best ways to stop his or her temper tantrums. 2 | Soothing with food | 0.899 | |
How often do you use food as a way to distract your child (e.g., if he or she is preventing you from doing your chores)? 1 | Soothing with food | 0.515 | |
To get my child to behave himself or herself I promise him or her something to eat. 2 | Soothing with food | 0.845 | |
“Clean Plate” Policy (α = 0.67; MIIC = 0.39) | This is a police in our home… | ||
If my child puts food on his or her plate, he or she has to eat it. 2 | “Clean plate” policy | 0.887 | |
My child must stay at the table until a specified amount of food has been eaten. 2 | “Clean plate” policy | 0.619 | |
My child is expected to eat everything on his or her plate at dinner. 2 | “Clean plate” policy | 0.876 | |
Threats, Bribes, and Pressure to eat (α = 0.81; MIIC = 0.41) | If your child does not like something, how often do you tell him or her that he or she will get a dessert if he or she tries it? 1 | Threats and Bribes | 0.621 |
How often do you promise your child something other than food (e.g., toy or favorite activity) in return for eating specific foods? 1 | Threats and Bribes | 0.539 | |
I have to punish or remove privileges to get my child to eat more. 2 | Threats and Bribes | 0.784 | |
How often do you help feed your child (e.g., hold the spoon to put food into his or her mouth)? 1 | Pressure to eat | 0.761 | |
How often do you beg your child to eat? 1 | Pressure to eat | 0.795 | |
How often do you coax or sweet talk your child to get him or her to take a bite? 1 | Pressure to eat | 0.832 |
Portuguese Version of Autonomy Support Scales | Original Factor | Factor Loadings | |
---|---|---|---|
Encouragement and reasoning (α = 0.73; MIIC = 0.50) | I encourage my child to look forward to the meal. 1 | Encouragement | 0.830 |
I encourage my child to enjoy his or her food. 1 | Encouragement | 0.860 | |
I reason with my child to get him or her to eat. 1 | Reasoning | 0.569 | |
Praise (α = 0.67; MIIC = 0.42) | I praise my child if he or she eats what I give him or her. 1 | Praise | 0.712 |
I praise my child if she or he eats a new food. 1 | Praise | 0.850 | |
I praise my child for choosing a healthy snack. 1 | Praise | 0.689 | |
Nutrition Education (α = 0.68; MIIC = 0.41) | How often do you try to make foods more familiar to your child by telling him or her where it came from? 2 | Nutrition Education | 0.514 |
I discuss with my child the nutritional value of foods. 1 | Nutrition Education | 0.856 | |
Do you give your child reasons for the rules you make about food and eating? 2 | Nutrition Education | 0.816 | |
Guided Choices: When and what food is eaten (α = 0.62; MIIC= 0.31) | I let my child eat between meals whenever she or he wants. 1 | Guided Choices: When Food Is Eaten | 0.697 |
I let my child decide when he or she would like to have his or her meal. 1 | Guided Choices: When Food Is Eaten | 0.650 | |
I allow my child to choose what she or he has for snacks. 1 | Guided Choices: What Food Is Eaten | 0.544 | |
I decide what my child eats between meals. 1 (R) | Guided Choices: What Food Is Eaten | −0.691 | |
Guided Choices: Amount of food eaten (α = 0.65; MIIC = 0.32) | During meals, I allow my child to decide when she or he has had enough to eat. 1 | Guided Choices: Amount of food eaten | 0.628 |
At snack time, I allow my child to decide when she or he has had enough to eat. 1 | Guided Choices: Amount of food eaten | 0.466 | |
I know better than my child does if she or he is hungry or full. 1 (R) | Guided Choices: Amount of food eaten | −0.751 | |
When your child says “I’m not hungry,” how often do you reply “You need to eat anyway”? 2 (R) | Guided Choices: Amount of food eaten | −0.679 |
Portuguese Version of Structure Scales | Original Factor | Factor Loadings | |
---|---|---|---|
Monitoring of Unhealthy Foods (α = 0.94; MIIC = 0.85) | I keep track of (either in my head or written down)... | ||
The sweets (candy, ice cream, cake, pies, pastries) that my child eats. 1 | Monitoring | 0.927 | |
The snack food (potato chips, cheese puffs) that my child eats. 1 | Monitoring | 0.966 | |
The sugary drinks (soda or others) that my child drinks. 1 | Monitoring | 0.925 | |
Weight Talk (α = 0.89; MIIC = 0.72) | How often do you complain about your own weight where your child can hear you? 2 | Weight Talk | 0.875 |
How often does your family comment on each other’s weight? 2 | Weight Talk | 0.900 | |
How often does your family talk about weight or dieting? 2 | Weight Talk | 0.899 | |
Distractions (α = 0.83; MIIC = 0.62) | During a typical weekend day, how often is the television on during your child’s meals even if she or he is not watching it? | ||
Breakfast 2 | Distractions | 0.857 | |
Snack 2 | Distractions | 0.870 | |
Dinner 2 | Distractions | 0.780 | |
Atmosphere of Meals (α = 0.65; MIIC = 0.38) | How often would you say arguments about eating occur during dinner time? 2 (R) | Atmosphere of Meals | −0.798 |
How often do other arguments, not about eating, occur during dinner time? 2 (R) | Atmosphere of Meals | −0.703 | |
How frequently is the evening meal an unpleasant or stressful time for your family. 2 (R) | Atmosphere of Meals | −0.739 | |
Modeling (α = 0.74; MIIC = 0.49) | I try to eat healthy foods in front of my child, even if they are not my favorite. 1 | Modeling | 0.811 |
My child learns to eat healthy snacks from me. 1 | Modeling | 0.621 | |
I eat food I want my child to eat. 2 | Modeling | 0.817 | |
Availability and Accessibility of Healthy Foods (α = 0.65; MIIC = 0.48) | Do you have fruits and vegetables that your child likes available at home? 2 | Availability/Accessibility of Healthy Foods | 0.711 |
How often is there fresh fruit on the counter, table, or somewhere else where your child can easily get to it? 2 | Availability/Accessibility of Healthy Foods | 0.800 | |
Planning, Preparation, and Attractive Presentation of Foods and Meals (α = 0.69; MIIC = 0.38) | How often are there cut-up vegetables in the fridge for your child to eat? 2 | Availability/Accessibility of Healthy Foods | 0.569 |
How often do you plan your family’s meals to provide a variety of food groups? 2 | Planning/Preparation of Healthy Meals | 0.723 | |
How often do you try to cook colorful (dark green, red, orange, purple) vegetables instead of potatoes or corn? 2 | Planning/Preparation of Healthy Meals | 0.705 | |
How often do you encourage vegetable consumption by preparing the vegetables in alternative ways? 2 | Attractive Presentation of Healthy Foods | 0.655 | |
Rules and Limits around Unhealthy Foods (α = 0.64; MIIC = 0.26) | I place limits on the sweet or salty snacks (candy, ice cream, cake, potato chips) that my child eats. 1 | Rules and Limits around Unhealthy Foods | 0.528 |
How often do you restrict (or try to restrict) your child’s access to sweetened beverages? 2 | Rules and Limits around Unhealthy Foods | 0.608 | |
If my child asks for sweetened beverages (including juice drinks or soda), I will give it to him or her. 1 (R) | Rules and Limits around Unhealthy Foods | −0.616 | |
How often do you allow your child to help himself or herself to snacks, including salty or sweet snacks, or candy when he or she is at home? 2 (R) | Rules and Limits around Unhealthy Foods | −0.742 | |
How often does your child eat in a bedroom? 2 (R) | Meal setting | −0.479 | |
Eating Area/Physical Space (α = 0.61; MIIC = 0.44) | How often do you decorate your table with flowers? 2 | Eating Area/Physical Space | 0.829 |
How often do you decorate your table with candles? 2 | Eating Area/Physical Space | 0.806 |
Mean scores (SD) for Total Sample and by Weight Status and Differences between Weight Status Groups (One-Way ANOVA) | Pearson’s Correlation with BMIz | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Sample (N = 184) | Weigh Status 1 | ||||||||
Normal (N = 92) | Overweight (N = 30) | Obesity (N = 22) | F | p | ƞ2 | ||||
Coercive Control Practices | Restriction | 2.3 (1.0) | 1.8 (0.8) | 2.6 (1.0) | 3.1 (1.1) | 20.322 | <0.001 a | 0.22 | 0.48 *** |
Soothing with food | 1.6 (0.6) | 1.6 (0.5) | 1.6 (0.6) | 1.8 (0.8) | 2.110 | 0.124 | 0.03 | −0.20 | |
“Clean plate” policy | 3.5 (0.8) | 3.5 (0.8) | 3.5 (0.6) | 3.2 (0.8) | 2.129 | 0.123 | 0.03 | −0.11 | |
Threats, bribes, pressure to eat | 2.1 (0.7) | 2.1 (0.7) | 2.1 (0.6) | 2.1 (0.7) | 0.010 | 0.990 | 0.00 | −0.14 | |
Autonomy Support Practices | Encouragement and Reasoning | 3.9 (0.6) | 3.9 (0.6) | 3.7 (0.7) | 3.8 (0.9) | 0.930 | 0.397 | 0.01 | −0.14 |
Praise | 4.3 (0.5) | 4.3 (0.5) | 4.1 (0.4) | 4.2 (0.6) | 1.706 | 0.185 | 0.02 | −0.03 | |
Nutrition Education | 3.5 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.0) | 3.5 (0.9) | 3.7 (0.9) | 0.406 | 0.667 | 0.00 | −0.08 | |
Guided choices: When and what food is eaten | 2.6 (0.6) | 2.7 (0.6) | 2.5 (0.5) | 2.5 (0.7) | 1.724 | 0.182 | 0.02 | −0.17 * | |
Guided choices: Amount of food eaten | 3.0 (0.7) | 2.9 (0.7) | 3.1 (0.5) | 3.0 (0.8) | 0.734 | 0.482 | 0.01 | 0.12 | |
Structure Practices | Monitoring of unhealthy foods | 4.1 (0.7) | 4.1 (0.7) | 4.1 (0.7) | 3.9 (0.6) | 0.904 | 0.407 | 0.01 | −0.07 |
Weight Talk | 2.4 (1.0) | 2.2 (0.9) | 2.5 (0.9) | 3.1 (1.2) | 7.970 | <0.001 b | 0.10 | 0.36 *** | |
Distractions | 3.1 (1.3) | 2.9 (1.1) | 3.3 (1.3) | 3.9 (1.1) | 5.941 | <0.001 b | 0.08 | 0.31 *** | |
Atmosphere of meals | 4.0 (0.6) | 4.0 (0.6) | 4.1 (0.5) | 3.9 (0.7) | 0.532 | 0.589 | 0.01 | −0.05 | |
Availability and accessibility of healthy foods | 4.2 (0.6) | 3.7 (0.7) | 4.3 (0.6) | 4.2 (0.9) | 0.338 | 0.714 | 0.00 | 0.08 | |
Modeling | 4.0 (0.7) | 4.0 (0.8) | 4.0 (0.7) | 3.9 (0.6) | 0.147 | 0.863 | 0.00 | −0.01 | |
Planning, Preparation and attractive presentation of foods and meals | 3.7 (0.7) | 3.7 (0.7) | 3.7 (0.6) | 3.6 (0.7) | 0.208 | 0.813 | 0.00 | 0.02 | |
Rules and Limits | 4.0 (0.6) | 4.0 (0.5) | 4.1 (0.5) | 3.8 (0.7) | 1.949 | 0.146 | 0.03 | −0.06 | |
Eating Area/Physical Space | 1.7 (0.8) | 1.7 (0.7) | 1.9 (0.9) | 1.6 (1.1) | 0.972 | 0.381 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Fruit and Vegetables (Daily) | Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (Weekly) | Snacks (Weekly) | Sweets (Weekly) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coercive Control Practices | Restriction | 0.02 | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
Soothing with food | −0.14 | 0.11 | 0.19* | 0.06 | |
“Clean plate” policy | 0.01 | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.07 | |
Threats, bribes, and pressure to eat | −0.08 | −0.01 | −0.06 | 0.15 | |
Autonomy Support Practices | Encouragement and Reasoning | −0.05 | −0.08 | 0.03 | 0.08 |
Praise | −0.11 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.13 | |
Nutrition Education | 0.02 | −0.03 | 0.03 | 0.17 | |
Guided choices: When and what food is eaten | −0.15 | 0.21 * | 0.14 | 0.08 | |
Guided choices: Amount of food eaten | 0.10 | 0.01 | −0.10 | −0.11 | |
Structure Practices | Monitoring of unhealthy foods | 0.00 | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.01 |
Weight Talk | 0.00 | 0.19 | 0.19 * | 0.20 * | |
Distractions | −0.10 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.25 *** | |
Atmosphere of meals | −0.09 | 0.15 | −0.05 | −0.04 | |
Availability and accessibility of healthy foods | 0.17 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.03 | |
Modeling | 0.08 | −0.40 *** | −0.20 * | −0.08 | |
Planning, Preparation and attractive presentation of foods and meals | 0.08 | 0.03 | −0.06 | −0.05 | |
Rules and Limits | 0.05 | −0.45 *** | −0.20 * | −0.14 | |
Eating Area/Physical Space | −0.03 | −0.00 | 0.00 | −0.17 |
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Afonso, L.; Castro, J.; Parente, N.; Torres, S. A Comprehensive Assessment of Food Parenting Practices: Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Version of the HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey and Associations with Children’s Weight and Food Intake. Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2020, 10, 424-440. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010032
Afonso L, Castro J, Parente N, Torres S. A Comprehensive Assessment of Food Parenting Practices: Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Version of the HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey and Associations with Children’s Weight and Food Intake. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education. 2020; 10(1):424-440. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010032
Chicago/Turabian StyleAfonso, Lisa, Joana Castro, Nuno Parente, and Sandra Torres. 2020. "A Comprehensive Assessment of Food Parenting Practices: Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Version of the HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey and Associations with Children’s Weight and Food Intake" European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education 10, no. 1: 424-440. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010032
APA StyleAfonso, L., Castro, J., Parente, N., & Torres, S. (2020). A Comprehensive Assessment of Food Parenting Practices: Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Version of the HomeSTEAD Family Food Practices Survey and Associations with Children’s Weight and Food Intake. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 10(1), 424-440. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010032