Effect of Pulse Type and Substitution Level on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality of Whole Wheat-Based Composite Flours
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Flour Characterization
2.3. Mixolab Analysis of Whole Wheat/Pulse Composite Flours
2.4. Bread Baking of Whole Wheat/Pulse Blends
2.5. Bread Quality Analysis
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Flour Properties
3.2. Dough Properties
3.2.1. Mixing Characteristics
3.2.2. Pasting Characteristics
3.3. Bread Properties
3.3.1. Bread Volume, C-Cell Structure, and Color Parameters
3.3.2. Moisture Loss and Texture Properties
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Flour | Moisture, % | Protein, % | Ash, % | Lipid, % | Total Carb., % | Avg. Particle Size, μm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat flour | 12.92 ± 0.03 a | 15.13 ± 0.62 b | 1.80 ± 0.02 e | 1.80 ± 0.02 b | 68.36 ± 0.60 a | 160.77 ± 1.15 c |
Commercial yellow pea | 10.45 ± 0.10 b | 24.22 ± 0.31 a | 2.18 ± 0.01 c,d | 1.21 ± 0.06 c | 61.96 ± 0.49 c | 131.62 ± 12.05 c |
Yellow pea | 9.47 ± 0.04 c | 19.82 ± 0.45 a,b | 2.32 ± 0.04 b,c | 0.84 ± 0.11 d | 67.56 ± 0.33 a,b | 242.55 ± 6.26 b,c |
Green pea | 8.04 ± 0.03 d | 21.78 ± 0.04 a | 2.38 ± 0.01 b | 1.18 ± 0.04 c | 66.62 ± 0.10 a,b,c | 331.59 ± 15.05 a,b |
Red lentil | 9.80 ± 0.15 c | 23.72 ± 1.19 a | 2.10 ± 0.08 d | 0.96 ± 0.06 c,d | 63.43 ± 1.20 b,c | 236.84 ± 0.41 b,c |
Chickpea | 7.95 ± 0.30 d | 22.19 ± 2.74 a | 2.66 ± 0.01 a | 5.10 ± 0.05 a | 62.10 ± 2.50 c | 427.01 ± 80.97 a |
Sample | Water Absorption, % | Development Time, min | Stability, min | Mechanical Weakening, Nm |
---|---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat | 70.90 | 7.41 ± 0.46 a,b,c | 9.80 ± 0.42 a | 0.096 ± 0.00 a |
5% Comm YP | 72.00 | 7.65 ± 0.57 a,b,c | 9.10 ± 0.14 a,b,c | 0.075 ± 0.01 a |
15% Comm YP | 71.80 | 6.35 ± 0.18 b,c,d,e | 7.35 ± 0.35 d,e,f,g | 0.082 ± 0.02 a |
25% Comm YP | 70.00 | 5.10 ± 0.03 d,e | 6.10 ± 0.14g h | 0.076 ± 0.02 a |
5% YP | 71.50 | 8.09 ± 0.52 a,b,c | 8.70 ± 0.14 a,b,c,d,e | 0.081 ± 0.01 a |
15% YP | 71.80 | 6.77 ± 0.78 b,c,d | 7.40 ± 0.14 d,e,f,g | 0.082 ± 0.01 a |
25% YP | 71.80 | 4.50 ± 0.04 e | 4.85 ± 0.21 h | 0.069 ± 0.00 a |
5% GP | 71.80 | 7.77 ± 0.45 a,b,c | 8.90 ± 0.28 a,b,c,d | 0.072 ± 0.02 a |
15% GP | 73.00 | 7.52 ± 1.06 a,b,c | 8.15 ± 1.34 b,c,d,e,f | 0.089 ± 0.01 a |
25% GP | 72.50 | 4.95 ± 0.32 d,e | 5.15 ± 0.07 h | 0.086 ± 0.00 a |
5% RL | 71.80 | 8.29 ± 0.69 a,b | 9.65 ± 0.21 a,b | 0.089 ± 0.01 a |
15% RL | 72.80 | 6.95 ± 0.21 a,b,c,d | 7.86 ± 0.07 d,e,f | 0.106 ± 0.02 a |
25% RL | 74.00 | 6.18 ± 0.21 c,d,e | 7.10 ± 0.14 f,g | 0.110 ± 0.00 a |
5% CP | 71.80 | 8.88 ± 0.18 a | 10.05 ± 0.07 a | 0.091 ± 0.00 a |
15% CP | 72.00 | 7.21 ± 0.62 a,b,c | 9.00 ± 0.14 a,b,c | 0.101 ± 0.01 a |
25% CP | 71.50 | 6.09 ± 0.54 c,d,e | 7.20 ± 0.14 e,f,g | 0.087 ± 0.01 a |
Sample | Minimum Torque (Nm) | Thermal Weakening (Nm) | Temperature at Minimum Torque (°C) | Peak Torque (Nm) | Cooking Stability (Nm) | Setback (Nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat | 0.486 ± 0.02 a | 0.631 ± 0.00 2 f,g | 58.6 ± 1.6 a | 1.510 ± 0.03 a | 1.041 ± 0.04 b,c,d,e | 0.213 ± 0.02 a,b,c |
5% Comm YP | 0.434 ± 0.01 b,c,d | 0.641 ± 0.004 e,f,g | 58.9 ± 1.3 a | 1.401 ± 0.01 a,b,c,d,e | 1.063 ± 0.01 a,b,c,d | 0.171 ± 0.04 a,b,c |
15% Comm YP | 0.379 ± 0.01 e,f | 0.675 ± 0.006 c,d,e,f | 58.2 ± 1.2 a | 1.332 ± 0.00 c,d,e,f,g | 0.980 ± 0.02 c,d,e,f | 0.154 ± 0.00 a,b,c |
25% Comm YP | 0.330 ± 0.00 g | 0.741 ± 0.004 a,b | 60.5 ± 2.5 a | 1.322 ± 0.04 d,e,f,g | 1.018 ± 0.00 b,c,d,e,f | 0.169 ± 0.0.02 a,b,c |
5% YP | 0.475 ± 0.00 a | 0.654 ± 0.018 e,f | 58.6 ± 2.5 a | 1.425 ± 0.05 a,b,c,d | 1.073 ± 0.02 a,b,c,d | 0.186 ± 0.03 a,b,c |
15% YP | 0.423 ± 0.01 c,d | 0.711 ± 0.002 b,c | 61.2 ± 0.7 a | 1.353 ± 0.03 b,c,d,e,f | 0.993 ± 0.02 c,d,e,f | 0.199 ± 0.02 a,b,c |
25% YP | 0.351 ± 0.01 f,g | 0.775 ± 0.013 a | 58.8 ± 0.4 a | 1.152 ± 0.02 h | 0.895 ± 0.00 f | 0.128 ± 0.00 c |
5% GP | 0.469 ± 0.02 a,b | 0.650 ± 0.012 e,f | 59.5 ± 0.1 a | 1.438 ± 0.06 a,b,c,d | 1.092 ± 0.00 a,b,c | 0.195 ± 0.04 a,b,c |
15% GP | 0.430 ± 0.01 b,c,d | 0.678 ± 0.022 c,d,e | 59.6 ± 2.3 a | 1.406 ± 0.05 a,b,c,d,e | 1.077 ± 0.10 a,b,c,d | 0.224 ± 0.06 a,b,c |
25% GP | 0.376 ± 0.01 e,f | 0.750 ± 0.004 a,b | 60.4 ± 0.6 a | 1.212 ± 0.00 g,h | 0.954 ± 0.03 d,e,f | 0.147 ± 0.05 b,c |
5% RL | 0.477 ± 0.00 a | 0.651 ± 0.015 e,f | 61.1 ± 1.6 a | 1.461 ± 0.03 a,b | 1.054 ± 0.04 a,b,c,d | 0.144 ± 0.02 b,c |
15% RL | 0.452 ± 0.01 a,b,c | 0.671 ± 0.018 c,d,e,f | 58.7 ± 1.4 a | 1.399 ± 0.05 a,b,c,d,e | 1.039 ± 0.01 b,c,d,e | 0.183 ± 0.00 a,b,c |
25% RL | 0.411 ± 0.01 d,e | 0.706 ± 0.020 b,c,d | 60.7 ± 0.7 a | 1.282 ± 0.03 e,f,g | 0.922 ± 0.04 e,f | 0.135 ± 0.02 b,c |
5% CP | 0.467 ± 0.01 a,b | 0.600 ± 0.005 g | 59.8 ± 0.4 a | 1.470 ± 0.01 a,b | 1.174 ± 0.00 a | 0.227 ± 0.01 a,b,c |
15% CP | 0.423 ± 0.00 c,d | 0.664 ± 0.002 e,f | 58.9 ± 1.3 a | 1.451 ± 0.01 a,b,c | 1.138 ± 0.01 a,b | 0.260 ± 0.01 a |
25% CP | 0.332 ± 0.00 g | 0.727 ± 0.006 b | 61.8 ± 0.4 a | 1.272 ± 0.01 f,g,h | 0.963 ± 0.02 d,e,f | 0.242 ± 0.00 a,b |
Sample | Water Abs., % | Mixing Time, min | Specific Volume, cm3/g | Number of Cells | Cell Diameter/mm | Wall Thickness, mm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat | 75 | 4.67 | 3.82 ± 0.07 a | 2941 ± 54 a | 1.88 ± 0.04 b,c,d | 0.420 ± 0.001 b,c |
5% Comm YP | 73 | 5.00 | 3.15 ± 0.12 a,b | 2867 ± 31 a,b | 1.83 ± 0.01 c,d | 0.420 ± 0.003 b,c |
15% Comm YP | 70.5 | 4.50 | 3.43 ± 0.03 a,b | 2818 ± 8 a,b | 1.82 ± 0.01 c,d | 0.425 ± 0.002 a,b,c |
25% Comm YP | 68 | 4.67 | 3.10 ± 0.05 a,b | 2425 ± 60 c,d,e | 2.07 ± 0.01 a,b | 0.443 ± 0.001 a,b |
5% YP | 75 | 4.67 | 3.81 ± 0.22 a | 2969 ± 109 a | 1.83 ± 0.06 c,d | 0.423 ± 0.009 b,c |
15% YP | 72.5 | 3.75 | 3.59 ± 0.11 a,b | 2592 ± 34 b,c,d | 1.99 ± 0.11 a,b,c | 0.435 ± 0.009 a,b,c |
25% YP | 70 | 4.17 | 3.16 ± 0.05 a,b | 2220 ± 94 e | 2.16 ± 0.04 a | 0.450 ± 0.016 a |
5% GP | 75 | 4.67 | 3.54 ± 0.06 a,b | 2825 ± 60 a,b | 1.75 ± 0.13 d | 0.415 ± 0.010 c |
15% GP | 72.5 | 4.50 | 3.18 ± 0.13 a,b | 2682 ± 76 a,b,c | 1.82 ± 0.03 c,d | 0.421 ± 0.000 b,c |
25% GP | 70 | 4.00 | 2.90 ± 0.11 b | 2285 ± 43 d,e | 2.01 ± 0.02 a,b,c | 0.439 ± 0.004 a,b,c |
5% RL | 75 | 5.00 | 3.44 ± 0.24 a,b | 2780 ± 17 a,b | 1.86 ± 0.07 b,c,d | 0.428 ± 0.008 a,b,c |
15% RL | 73.5 | 4.50 | 3.00 ± 0.11 a,b | 2732 ± 161 a,b,c | 1.81 ± 0.07 c,d | 0.424 ± 0.005 b,c |
25% RL | 72 | 4.50 | 2.84 ± 0.05 b | 2411 ± 132 c,d,e | 1.89 ± 0.04 b,c,d | 0.423 ± 0.001 b,c |
5% CP | 75 | 5.17 | 3.50 ± 0.14 a,b | 2919 ± 154 a,b | 1.85 ± 0.04 b,c,d | 0.423 ± 0.003 b,c |
15% CP | 72.5 | 5.67 | 3.13 ± 0.11 a,b | 2738 ± 37 a,b,c | 1.93 ± 0.03 a,b,c,d | 0.425 ± 0.000 a,b,c |
25% CP | 68 | 5.33 | 3.31 ± 0.14 a,b | 2663 ± 42 a,b,c | 1.92 ± 0.02 b,c,d | 0.430 ± 0.000 a,b,c |
Bread Sample | L* | a* | b* |
---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat | 36.25 ± 0.64 a | 11.46 ± 0.89 a | 25.90 ± 1.40 a |
5% Comm YP | 36.53 ± 0.69 a | 12.20 ± 0.12 a | 26.40 ± 0.54 a |
15% Comm YP | 34.27 ± 2.04 a,b,c,d | 11.54 ± 0.23 a | 24.55 ± 0.09 a |
25% Comm YP | 32.21 ± 0.48 b,c,d | 10.49 ± 1.86 a | 21.72 ± 1.36 a |
5% YP | 34.81 ± 0.42 a,b,c | 17.52 ± 8.93 a | 18.98 ± 10.02 a |
15% YP | 33.96 ± 0.78 a,b,c,d | 11.45 ± 0.20 a | 24.05 ± 0.41 a |
25% YP | 31.56 ± 0.00 c,d | 11.40 ± 0.39 a | 22.72 ± 0.85 a |
5% GP | 36.21 ± 2.23 a | 11.65 ± 0.01 a | 25.20 ± 0.13 a |
15% GP | 33.13 ± 0.06 a,b,c,d | 11.45 ± 0.39 a | 23.86 ± 0.88 a |
25% GP | 30.51 ± 0.57 d | 11.04 ± 0.01 a | 23.03 ± 0.69 a |
5% RL | 35.57 ± 0.04 a,b | 11.54 ± 0.37 a | 24.72 ± 0.04 a |
15% RL | 33.09 ± 0.31 a,b,c,d | 11.21 ± 0.05 a | 22.92 ± 0.69 a |
25% RL | 30.59 ± 0.83 d | 11.29 ± 0.43 a | 22.45 ± 1.78 a |
5% CP | 36.41 ± 0.09 a | 12.28 ± 0.76 a | 25.97 ± 0.23 a |
15% CP | 33.51 ± 1.85 a,b,c,d | 12.18 ± 0.54 a | 25.36 ± 1.43 a |
25% CP | 30.74 ± 0.88 d | 10.94 ± 0.11 a | 20.68 ± 1.03 a |
Bread Sample | Day 1, % | Day 4, % | Decrease Rate Day 1–Day 4, % | Day 7, % | Decrease Rate Day 4–Day 7, % | Overall Decrease Rate, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat | 46.82 ± 0.05 a,b | 46.37 ± 0.28 a | 0.96 | 42.98 ± 0.49 a,b,c,d | 7.31 | 8.20 |
5% Comm YP | 46.45 ± 0.47 a,b,c | 45.92 ± 0.28 a,b | 1.14 | 43.16 ± 0.78 a,b,c,d | 6.01 | 7.08 |
15% Comm YP | 45.73 ± 0.27 c,d,e | 44.38 ± 1.03 a,b | 2.95 | 41.12 ± 1.01 d,e | 7.35 | 10.08 |
25% Comm YP | 44.79 ± 0.14 f | 43.02 ± 0.94 b | 3.95 | 39.67 ± 1.38 e | 7.79 | 11.43 |
5% YP | 47.06 ± 0.16 a | 45.81 ± 1.30 a,b | 2.66 | 44.75 ± 1.11 a | 2.31 | 4.91 |
15% YP | 46.17 ± 0.03 a,b,c,d | 44.24 ± 1.28 a,b | 4.18 | 41.73 ± 0.67 b,c,d,e | 5.67 | 9.62 |
25% YP | 45.58 ± 0.30 c,d,e,f | 44.64 ± 0.02 a,b | 2.06 | 41.53 ± 0.35 c,d,e | 6.97 | 8.89 |
5% GP | 46.77 ± 0.08 a,b | 46.40 ± 0.32 a | 0.79 | 44.29 ± 0.77 a,b,c | 4.55 | 5.30 |
15% GP | 46.02 ± 0.46 b,c,d | 45.61 ± 0.20 a,b | 0.87 | 41.01 ± 0.90 d,e | 10.09 | 10.87 |
25% GP | 45.27 ± 0.07 d,e,f | 43.50 ± 0.64 a,b | 3.91 | 42.06 ± 0.29 a,b,c,d,e | 3.31 | 7.09 |
5% RL | 47.00 ± 0.18 a | 46.12 ± 0.69 a,b | 1.87 | 44.54 ± 0.24 a,b | 3.43 | 5.23 |
15% RL | 46.71 ± 0.30 a,b | 45.77 ± 0.80 a,b | 2.01 | 44.73 ± 0.03 a | 2.27 | 4.24 |
25% RL | 45.94 ± 0.25 b,c,d | 45.42 ± 0.18 a,b | 1.13 | 42.24 ± 1.11 a,b,c,d,e | 7.00 | 8.05 |
5% CP | 46.48 ± 0.07 a,b,c | 45.94 ± 0.54 a,b | 1.16 | 45.01 ± 0.50 a | 2.02 | 3.16 |
15% CP | 46.17 ± 0.00 a,b,c,d | 45.18 ± 0.27 a,b | 2.14 | 42.47 ± 0.56 a,b,c,d | 3.78 | 5.85 |
25% CP | 44.88 ± 0.06 e,f | 43.92 ± 1.65 a,b | 2.14 | 41.46 ± 0.25 c,d,e | 5.60 | 7.62 |
Bread Sample | Day 1, g | Day 4, g | Increase Rate Day 1–Day 4, % | Day 7, g | Increase Rate Day 4–Day 7, % | Overall Increase Rate, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole wheat | 567.06 ± 36.32 f,g | 853.74 ± 43.06 e | 50.56 | 1199.38 ± 260.09 e | 40.49 | 111.51 |
5% Comm YP | 712.1 ± 61.83 e,f,g | 973.47 ± 12.43 d,e | 36.70 | 1663.07 ± 90.51 b,c,d,e | 70.84 | 133.54 |
15% Comm YP | 725.12 ± 59.52 d,e,f,g | 1122.67 ± 123.00 c,d,e | 54.83 | 1713.21 ± 96.98 b,c,d,e | 52.60 | 136.27 |
25% Comm YP | 1056.81 ± 123.45 a,b,c | 1392.67 ± 144.21 a,b,c,d | 31.77 | 2041.58 ± 258.22 b,c,d | 46.61 | 93.18 |
5% YP | 580.03 ± 112.71 f,g | 843.91 ± 28.76 e | 45.49 | 1231.22 ± 173.69 e | 45.89 | 112.27 |
15% YP | 667.15 ± 112.71 f,g | 897.78 ± 5.82 e | 34.57 | 1138.07 ± 165.77 e | 26.76 | 70.59 |
25% YP | 993.23 ± 139.79 b,c,d | 1410.41 ± 68.88 a,b,c | 42.00 | 2191.13 ± 135.79 b,c | 55.35 | 120.61 |
5% GP | 722.84 ± 110.58 e,f,g | 1073.61 ± 112.58 c,d,e | 48.53 | 1163.77 ± 109.99 e | 8.40 | 61.00 |
15% GP | 822.15 ± 5.88 c,d,e,f | 1219.51 ± 141.75 b,c,d,e | 48.33 | 1907.13 ± 76.45 b,c,d | 56.38 | 131.97 |
25% GP | 1219.74 ± 132.70 a,b | 1552.77 ± 283.37 a,b | 27.30 | 2276.93 ± 220.38 a,b | 46.64 | 86.67 |
5% RL | 550.99 ± 2.28 g | 1051.97 ± 40.25 c,d,e | 90.92 | 1460.46 ± 169.68 d,e | 38.83 | 165.06 |
15% RL | 992.63 ± 94.40 b,c,d | 1362.45 ± 184.44 b,c,d | 37.26 | 1588.22 ± 66.76 c,d,e | 16.57 | 60.00 |
25% RL | 1296.06 ± 105.56 a | 1793.29 ± 118.36 a | 38.36 | 2367.41 ± 81.26 b,c,d | 32.01 | 82.66 |
5% CP | 734.98 ± 62.23 d,e,f,g | 1131.76 ± 175.65 b,c,d,e | 53.99 | 1409.70 ± 38.27 d,e | 24.56 | 91.80 |
15% CP | 963.08 ± 56.84 b,c,d,e | 1460.00 ± 71.59 a,b,c | 51.60 | 2873.91 ± 249.33 a | 96.84 | 198.41 |
25% CP | 1029.22 ± 102.67 a,b,c | 1224.73 ± 272.05 b,c,d,e | 19.00 | 1971.11 ± 72.52 b,c,d | 60.94 | 91.51 |
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Zhang, Y.; Hu, R.; Tilley, M.; Siliveru, K.; Li, Y. Effect of Pulse Type and Substitution Level on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality of Whole Wheat-Based Composite Flours. Processes 2021, 9, 1687. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091687
Zhang Y, Hu R, Tilley M, Siliveru K, Li Y. Effect of Pulse Type and Substitution Level on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality of Whole Wheat-Based Composite Flours. Processes. 2021; 9(9):1687. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091687
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Yiqin, Ruijia Hu, Michael Tilley, Kaliramesh Siliveru, and Yonghui Li. 2021. "Effect of Pulse Type and Substitution Level on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality of Whole Wheat-Based Composite Flours" Processes 9, no. 9: 1687. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091687