Encapsulation of Active Ingredients in Food Industry by Spray-Drying and Nano Spray-Drying Technologies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Spray-Drying Process
2.1. Factors Influencing the Spray-Drying Process
2.2. Microencapsulation of Food Active Ingredients
Category | Core Material | Wall Material | Spray Drying Conditions | Major Outcomes | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oils and lipids | Fish oil | Fish protein hydrolysates from sardine (S.pilchardus) and horse mackerel (T. mediterraneus) | Inlet: 180 °C Outlet: 70 °C Air pressure: 4 bars Rotary speed: 22,000 rpm | Fish protein with a hydrolysate degree of 5% shows better performance for the stabilization of emulsions of fish oils. 98 ± 0.1% of encapsulation efficiency was reached with oxidative stability of the encapsulated oil over a period of 12 weeks. | [48] |
Arabic gum, sodium caseinate, sage extract | Inlet: 160 °C Outlet: 80 °C Feed rate: 15–22 g/min Air pressure: 450 Kpa | The high encapsulation efficiency, oxidative stabilization, and low surface oil content for the encapsulation of fish oil was obtained with emulsions stabilized using Arabic gum and sage extract. Furthermore, the simulation of gastrointestinal condition revealed that more than 80% of fish oil encapsulated could be released. | [49] | ||
Yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) | Inlet: 150 °C Outlet: 60 °C Feed rate: 25 g/min | For optimization of the drying conditions, a statistical experiment design was applied, and the maximum efficiency of encapsulation was 82.7 ± 1.0%. The stability of encapsulated oil was of 30 days at relative humidity below 70%. Additionally, stability during storage was increased by coating with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. | [50] | ||
Brucea javanica oil (BJO) | Arabic gum: gelatin (1:2-8) | Inlet: 140, 150 and 160 °C Feed rate: 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mL/min. Air flow rate: 50, 65, and 80 L/min. | The best spray-drying conditions were an inlet temperature of 151.3 °C, a feed flow rate of 1.32 mL/min, and a drying air flow speed of 80 L/m in a relation of 1:6 Arabic gum: gelatin. It shows maximum encapsulation efficiency (82.9% w/w) and a loading capacity of 10.56% with high oxidative stability. | [51] | |
Nigella sativa oil | Maltodextrin, sodium caseinate | Inlet: 150–190 °C Feed rate: 1 L/h Air pressure: 4.5 ± 0.1 bar | The microencapsulation efficiency was a function of the concentration of the wall material, the oil content, and the inlet temperature, showing the best results for 30%, 10%, and 160 °C, respectively. The dry product exhibited low moisture content, high solubility, and an encapsulation efficiency of 92.71%. | [52] | |
Sardine oil | Vanillic acid grafted chitosan (Va-g-Ch) | Inlet: 140 °C Outlet: 77 °C | Obtaining sardine oil-loaded microparticles (75%) and a polydispersity index of 2.4 μ, the encapsulation efficiency was 84 ± 0.84%, and the loading efficiency was 67 ± 0.51%. The encapsulated product shows good oxidative stability. | [53] | |
Flaxseed oil | Maltodextrin, arabic gum, whey protein, modified starch | Inlet: 180 °C Outlet: 110 °C Feed rate: 12 ± 2 g/min. Air flow rate: 73 m3/h | The best encapsulation efficiency was obtained for maltodextrin/modified starch (Hi-Cap 100TM), while the maltodextrin/whey protein combination exhibited better performance against lipid oxidation. Obtained hollow particles without cracks and fissures and with the active material embedded in the matrix. | [54] | |
Flavors | D-limonene, ethyl hexanoate, citral and ethyl propionate | Yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) | Inlet: 140–200 °C Outlet: 64–95 °C Feed rate: 10 mL/min Air flow rate: 35m3/h | Successful flavor encapsulation in partially β-glucans extracted from yeast cells. The incubation time and the temperature showed noticeable effects on the encapsulation of flavors. Flavor contents of d-limonene 37% and ethyl hexanoate 49%. | [55] |
Lemon | Arabic gum and maltodextrin | Inlet:160 °C Outlet: 65 ± 2 °C Air flow rate: 1.42·10−6 m3/s Rotary speed: 39,000 rpm | Good stability of the oil–water emulsion for a period of 5 days. The increase in aroma addition caused an increase in emulsion viscosity. Increasing the aroma content, an increase in porosity, distribution of particle size, and total color differences was observed at the time that loose bulk density, solubility, and lightness decreased. The lowest water content was obtained for powder based on the emulsion with 6% of the aroma. | [56] | |
Lime | Arabic gum and maltodextrin | Inlet: 180, 200, and 220 °C Outlet: 80, 90, and 100 °C Feed rate: 75–170 mL/min | The methodology of the response surface was used for optimization of the drying parameters, estimating an inlet air temperature of 220 °C and an outlet temperature of 85 °C to provide the maximum evaporative rate, volatile oil retention, and microencapsulation efficiency of 7.7 kg/h, 95.7%, and 99.9% respectively. | [57] | |
Orange | Maltodextrin, modified starch and trehalose | Inlet: 175 ± 3 °C Outlet: 83 ± 3 °C Flow rate: 8 mL/min- Air pressure: 3.2 bar | The systems using trehalose were more effective in the encapsulation of orange oil with high aroma retention, since they presented higher Tg values in comparison with those containing sucrose. These systems could be stored in a variety of temperatures and relative humidity conditions without modifying the physical characteristics of the powders. | [58] | |
Citral | Maltodextrin, sucrose, and trehalose | Inlet: 175 ± 3 °C Outlet: 83 ± 3 °C Flow rate: 8 mL/min- Air pressure: 3.2 bar | Among the citral retention with matrices of sucrose and trehalose, no differences were observed in the quantity and quality of powder obtained. However, the physical stability of the trehalose system was better than that of the sucrose system. | [59] | |
Food additives | Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L). | Maltodextrin, modified starch, inulin, alginate, and arabic gum. | Inlet: 140 °C Outlet: 70 °C Flow rate: 473 L/h Feed rate: 10 mL/min | Maximum yield of goldenberry powder of 67.2%. The obtained products exhibited low moisture content (<5.25%) and good solubility in cold water (>82%). The highest total carotenoid contents after spray drying were found using maltodextrin and cellobiose powder. Additionally, cellobiose powder showed the highest retention of carotenoids and encapsulation efficiency of 77.2% | [60] |
β-carotene | Maltodextrin | Inlet: 170 °C Outlet: 95 °C Feed rate: 7.5 mL/min | Two different microencapsulation methods by β-carotene were compared; spray drying with maltodextrin and the structuration of beads with alginate and chitosan, as well as its bioavailability in a food matrix. The spray drying showed less encapsulation efficiency than beads of alginate and chitosan, being of 37.7% and 54.7% respectively. Nevertheless, into of a food matrix, the β-carotene microencapsulate obtained by spray drying was more bioavailable compare to beads of alginate and chitosan. | [61] | |
Carotenoid Astaxanthin | Arabic gum, whey protein, maltodextrin, and inulin | Inlet: 120 °C Outlet: 70 °C Aspirator rate: 32.9 m3 h−1 Air pressure: 40 kg/cm2 | Obtaining yellow and orange pigments was evidence of the pigment contents. Whey protein alone or in combination with Arabic gum exhibited the best encapsulation yield (61.2–70.1%). The microencapsulates with 100% whey protein showed the highest temperature stability. However, the system with 100% whey protein showed the maximum stability as a function of the temperature. | [62] | |
Vitamin A acetate | HI-CAP 100 (starch octenylsucciniate, OSA-starch) | Inlet: 182 °C Outlet: 82 °C Feed rate: 1000 mL/ min | The microcapsules exhibited spherical morphology with characteristic dents, and the maximum encapsulation efficiency (96.38 ± 0.71%) was obtained with a solution of total solids concentration at the core/wall material ratios of 40%. | [63] | |
Quercetin 3-D-Galactoside | Maltodextrin | Inlet: 170–210 °C Flow rate: 35 m3/h Air pressure: 1.5 bar | Optimization of the spray-drying conditions for maximizing the yield, content, and retention of the antioxidant quercetin 3D galactoside, as well as evaluation of the effects of type and concentration of maltodextrin, such as the inlet temperature for drying. The yield and content of the antioxidant were mainly affected by the maltodextrin concentration, while temperature had a relatively low effect on the quantitative parameters. | [64] | |
Orange juice | Maltodextrin | Inlet: 200 °C Outlet: 70 °C Flow rate: 7 mL/min Air flow: 28 m3/h Air pressure: 1.5 bar | Obtaining orange juice–maltodextrin powders and evaluating maltodextrins with different grades of polymerization to avoid structure collapse due to any change in appearance and the formation of particle agglomerates. | [46] | |
Bioactive ingredients | β-galactosidase | Arabic gum, chitosan, modified chitosan, calcium alginate, and sodium alginate | Inlet: 115 °C Outlet: 56–61 °C Flow rate: 4 mL/min Air pressure: 6.5 bar | All the microencapsulates showed a spherical morphology with a mean diameter of 3 μm, but the particles obtained with chitosan and Arabic gum as wall material presented a rough surface. Regarding the enzymatic activity, this decreased with all the wall materials evaluated compared to the free enzyme activity. | [22] |
Lactobacillus acidophilus NRRL B-4495 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus NRRL B-442 | Maltodextrin | Inlet: 100–130 °C Outlet: 67–97 °C Feed rate: 40–60 mL/min | Response surface methodology was used to evaluate the effect of the concentration of maltodextrin, inlet temperature, and feed rate during the spray drying of raspberry juice with a probiotic. The response variables were the culturability of probiotics and the color of the powder. The high temperatures during spray drying were detrimental to probiotics and may be circumvented by sub-lethal thermal shock (50 °C for L. acidophilus and 52.5 °C for L. rhamnosus). An increase in the concentration of maltodextrin favored the survival of the probiotics. | [65] | |
Bifidobacterium BB-12 | Inulin, oligofructose, and oligofructose-enriched inulin | Inlet: 150 °C Outlet: 55 °C Feed rate: 6 mL/min Flow rate: 35 m3/h Air pressure: 0.7 MPa | Three prebiotics and their mixtures with reconstituted skim milk (RSM) were used to microencapsulate bifidobacterias BB-12. The system with prebiotics increased the survival rate of the microorganism during storage at the temperatures evaluated. Specifically, the microcapsules produced with a blend of oligofructose-enriched inulin with RSM and blending of oligofructose with RSM resulted in better protection of bifidobacteria during storage. | [66] |
2.3. Carrier Agents or Wall Materials
3. The Nano Spray-Drying Process
Nanoencapsulation of Food Active Ingredients
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Conventional Spray Drying and Nano Spray Drying
5. Unwanted Reactions and Physicochemical Changes Presented by Spray-Dried Products
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Core Material | Wall Material | Spray Drying Conditions | Major Outcomes | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lyphophilic substances | Vitamin E acetate | Arabic gum, whey protein, polyvinyl alcohol, modified starch, and maltodextrin | Inlet: 100 °C Outlet: 41–58 °C | Obtaining of submicron particles with size as low as approximately 350 nm for the formulations prepared using Arabic gum as wall material at 0.1 wt % of solid concentration. The yield of the obtained dried products was between 70% and 90%. | [15] |
Curcumin | Chitosan | Inlet: 100 °C Spray mesh: 4.0 μm Air flow rate: 150 L/min | The encapsulation of curcumin in submicrometric chitosan with spherical morphology and smooth surface with an encapsulation efficiency near 100%. The authors achieved a complete release of the active ingredient in a short period of time (2 h). | [79] | |
Bovine serum albumin (BSA) | Polyoxyethylene and sorbitan monooleate | Inlet: 80–120 °C Outlet: 36–55 °C Spray meshes: 4.0, 5.5, and 7.0 μm Nitrogen flow rate: 120 L/min | Taguchi methodology was incorporated into an empirical study for the optimization of process parameters in the production of smooth, spherical nanoparticles with diameters around 460 nm and high-yield products (72%). | [80] | |
Folic acid (Synthetic vitamin B9) | Guar gum, whey protein and resistant starch | Inlet: 90 °C Outlet: 45 °C Spray mesh: 0.7 μm Air flow rate: 140 L/h | Efficient encapsulation of folic acid (vitamin B9). Whey protein showed higher encapsulation efficiency and low degradation during storage compared to starch. The encapsulation efficiency from the whey protein/folic acid formulation was around 84%, although bigger average diameters and broader size distribution were observed in comparison with other drying technology (electrospraying). | [81] | |
Peppermint oil | Sodium caseinate and pectin | Inlet: 100 °C Spray mesh: 5.5 μm Air Flow rate: 120 L/min | Encapsulation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic nutrients by the development of a sodium caseinate/pectin/peppermint oil nanocomplex delivery system. Encapsulates were stable and had exceptional capability to preserve the antioxidant activity of nutrients under storage conditions. | [82] | |
Not active compound encapsulated | Sodium caseinate, L-α-soya lecithin, and pectin | Inlet: 100 °C Spray mesh: 5.5 μm Air Flow rate: 120 L/min | The Box–Benhken design was applied in the spray drying of solid lipid nanoparticles with a bilayer of the biopolymers and stabilized with soya lecithin to achieve well-separated and spherical ultra-fine powders with excellent redispersibility in water. | [83] | |
Curcumin and stearic acid | Sodium caseinate, pectin, and stearic acid | Inlet: 100 °C Spray mesh: 7 μm Air Flow rate: 120 L/min | Production of solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with curcumin with enhanced antioxidant activity, gastrointestinal stability, small particle, and low polydispersity index. | [84] | |
Curcumin | Egg yolk low-density lipoprotein, pectin | Inlet: 70, 100, and 120 °C. Outlet: 50–60 °C Air Flow rate: 130 L/min | Optimization of the fabrication conditions for egg yolk low-density lipoprotein/pectin nanogels with a smooth surface and spherical shape with a diameter of 58 nm. The obtained ultra-fine powders were able to re-disperse into water and keep the nanoscale size. | [85] | |
Hydrophilic substances | Vitamin B12 | Arabic gum, cashew nut gum, sodium alginate, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, and Eudragit RS100 | Inlet: 120 °C Outlet: 50–60 °C Spray meshes: 4.0 and 7.0 μm Air flow rate: 130 L/min | Production of submicron particles by the highly diluted solutions. Eudragit RS100 showed more controlled release kinetics since it presented solubility dependent on the change in pH. | [86] |
β-Galactoside | Trehalose | Inlet: 80–120 °C Outlet: 38–60 °C Spray meshes: 4.0, 5.5, and 7.0 μm Air flow rate: 100–110 L/min | Obtaining of submicrometric encapsulates between 2 and 4 μm of diameter at the optimized spray drying conditions of inlet temperature 80 °C and the lower spray mesh size and the flow rate of 4 μ and 100 L/min, respectively. The obtained morphology was spherical with a smooth surface and the yield product reached up to 90%. | [77] | |
Not active compound encapsulated | Chitosan/gallic acid conjugate, Arabic gum, and polyethylene glycol | Inlet: 100 °C Spray mesh: 5.5 μm Air flow rate: 100–120 L/min | Obtaining spherical, homogeneous, and smooth powders of nanoparticles with improved water solubility and dispersibility properties. In comparison with the native chitosan (CS)/Arabic gum nanoparticles, the polyethylene glycol (PEG) complexes exhibited smaller size, narrower polydispersity index, and greater redispersibility behavior. | [78] | |
Լ-leucine | α,α-trehalose | Inlet: 75 °C Outlet: 45 °C Spray mesh: 4 μm Air flow rate: 100 L/min | Presented a mechanistic model for the efficient experimental design for obtaining microparticles. Authors produced particles with spherical morphologies that begin to exhibit a corrugated surface as the percentage of crystalline leucine increases, lowering the density and improving the dispersibility properties of the dried products. | [87] | |
Eugenol | Zein, sodium caseinate, and pectin | Inlet: 100 °C Spray mesh: 5 μm Air flow rate: 120 L/min | Under optimal preparation condition and formulation, eugenol-loaded complex nanoparticles with a size of 140 nm, spherical shape, and uniform size distribution and excellent storage stability were obtained. | [88] | |
Saffron apocarotenoids | Maltodextrin | Inlet: 100 °C Spray meshes: 4 and 7 μm. Air flow rate: 100 L/min | Obtaining spherical particles found that the morphology is highly dependent on the mesh size employed. Product yield and encapsulation efficiency of saffron apocarotenoids were found to be satisfactory being approximately 70% and 80%, respectively. Thermal stability and bioaccessibility of the apocarotenoids was enhanced by the nanoencapsulation process. | [89] |
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Piñón-Balderrama, C.I.; Leyva-Porras, C.; Terán-Figueroa, Y.; Espinosa-Solís, V.; Álvarez-Salas, C.; Saavedra-Leos, M.Z. Encapsulation of Active Ingredients in Food Industry by Spray-Drying and Nano Spray-Drying Technologies. Processes 2020, 8, 889. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080889
Piñón-Balderrama CI, Leyva-Porras C, Terán-Figueroa Y, Espinosa-Solís V, Álvarez-Salas C, Saavedra-Leos MZ. Encapsulation of Active Ingredients in Food Industry by Spray-Drying and Nano Spray-Drying Technologies. Processes. 2020; 8(8):889. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080889
Chicago/Turabian StylePiñón-Balderrama, Claudia I., César Leyva-Porras, Yolanda Terán-Figueroa, Vicente Espinosa-Solís, Claudia Álvarez-Salas, and María Z. Saavedra-Leos. 2020. "Encapsulation of Active Ingredients in Food Industry by Spray-Drying and Nano Spray-Drying Technologies" Processes 8, no. 8: 889. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080889
APA StylePiñón-Balderrama, C. I., Leyva-Porras, C., Terán-Figueroa, Y., Espinosa-Solís, V., Álvarez-Salas, C., & Saavedra-Leos, M. Z. (2020). Encapsulation of Active Ingredients in Food Industry by Spray-Drying and Nano Spray-Drying Technologies. Processes, 8(8), 889. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080889