Perspectives on Resource Recovery from Bio-Based Production Processes: From Concept to Implementation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Role of Economics in Resource Recovery
3. Resource Recovery Technologies
3.1. Membrane-Based Processes
3.2. Precipitation
3.3. Extraction
3.3.1. Ion Exchange
3.3.2. Adsorption
3.3.3. Solvent Extraction
3.4. Distillation
- (1)
- Some of the resources that need to be recovered from bio-based waste streams contain compounds that cannot be boiled at reasonable temperature and pressure (e.g., phosphate). Hence, from a practical point of view, classical distillation is not an applicable separation technology for this class of components.
- (2)
- Some of the biological resources to be recovered from bio-based production streams can be heat sensitive and would degrade at higher temperature levels. In principle vacuum distillation can be used to recover these compounds; however, from an economic and practical point of view the level of vacuum (reduced pressure) might be high, leading to a high operating cost, and as such an alternative separation might be preferred.
- (3)
- In many bio-based separation units the resources to be recovered are dissolved in aqueous streams and are typically present at relatively low concentrations. As such, even if the resource can be separated using distillation, it might not be economically viable. This is because the aqueous stream (mainly water) needs to be brought into a two-phase region (boil) to recover a relatively small quantity of resources. Since water has a large heat capacity and heat of vaporization, this will result in significant energy expenditure. Hence rather than employing classical distillation, it might be more cost effective to use other methods such as membrane separation or precipitation to recover these resources from an aqueous waste stream.
3.5. Hybrid and Intensified Processes
4. Technology Selection, Readiness and Economics
- Initial economic potential: is one of the key aspects that need to be assessed at an early stage of a resource recovery project. Assessment of this aspect would require the identification of a target resource as well as raw materials that might be required to carry out the resource recovery project. The economic potential aspect should also include any reduction in costs that are achieved when transforming a potential pollutant into a resource (e.g., reduction in waste treatment cost). It is also important to investigate if the resources available in waste streams are being recovered in a valuable form (i.e., burning an ethanol rich waste stream to produce bio energy instead of recovering the ethanol). The general approach that can be used in this step could be simple cash flow analysis or a discounted cash flow analysis as this provides sufficient information to evaluate the stop go criteria.
- Separation technology search: is another key aspect that needs to be carried out in the early stage of a resource recovery project. This process begins with a literature review to identify potential separation technologies that can be employed to recover the target resource. It is likely that there exists more than one established recovery pathway/technology, and all of these technologies can be further evaluated. In situations where the target resource has not been recovered previously, a more fundamental approach needs to be taken. If a similar resource has been recovered as part of previous research, the applicability of the technology should be investigated. This assessment would allow an individual to get a thorough understanding of all the technologies that are available for a given resource recovery project, which allows for an informed decision to be made.
- TRL assessment (Technology readiness level): is a matrix developed by NASA to assess the maturity of a technology, ranging from TRL1, where one has to do with a basic concept, to TRL5 where the concept has been proven in pilot scale, and finally to TRL9 where the technology has been implemented “flight proven” [97,98]. This concept has been adopted by many other fields including bio-manufacturing [99]. In most instances academic bioprocess development tends to focus on TRL1 and TRL2 where conceptually an idea is tested and proven in lab scale [100]. Figure 3 shows different TRL levels that are available, and how they would apply to a resource recovery project. However, determining the TRL of a resource recovery project can be subjective as many separation technologies are adapted from other areas of commercial application and are not purely developed for resource recovery, which requires engineers to make an informed decision of the impact on the TRL of a technology with respect to a specific project. The objective of this assessment is to narrow down the number of resource recovery solutions by understanding and estimating TRL. In general, technologies with low levels of TRL require a large economic and time commitment to be developed to TRL9. As such the TRL assessment will allow the screening of technologies that are not sufficiently developed and can form a stop/go decision point for a specific technology. The “acceptable” level of TRL for a project is subjective to any specific project, although many investors would prefer high TRL projects.
- Detailed economics: The use of TRL assessment in the previous section allows to identify a number of possible process technology solutions that are at a sufficiently high TRL to be applied successfully in industry. However, prior to proceeding to testing and implementation of a resource recovery project it is important to further narrow down to a single technology. This can be done by considering the overall economics of the project where higher reward and the lowest risk projects will be preferred. It should be emphasized that the exact trade-off between risk and reward will be subjective to the project and investors. The use of detailed economic analysis of projects to identify the best process technology/operation is an established practice in bio-based production processes [94,101,102]. In general, these methodologies use the concept of net present value (NPV) analysis to develop economic models and combine these models with uncertainty analysis methods to quantify the economic risks and rewards. However, these methods typically do not address the inherent economic risk of implementing “new” process technology into an industrial environment, which is a key economic risk that needs to be considered in a detailed economic analysis. To this end a modified LOPA (layer of protection analysis) based analysis can be incorporated to these economic analysis methods to quantify the risk of technology failure. LOPA in its original form is a simplified method of safety risk assessment that uses information gathered during a process, such as Process Hazard Analysis (PHA). As with other hazard analysis methods, LOPA has been developed to identify if sufficient layers of protection are present to safeguard against accidents [103]. The idea of LOPA, however, has been extended beyond safety risk assessment into economic risk assessment. For example in [104] LOPA was used to compare the cost vs benefit of installing an extra layer of safety. In this guideline, a modified LOPA will be used to quantify economic risk brought on/mitigated by a firm who will develop and implement a separation technology to an existing production facility. As such, this modified LOPA should capture the risk of technology failure in development as well as in implementation. The combined LOPA and economic analysis (NPV with uncertainty analysis) provides sufficient information for an individual to screen out the best possible solution based on the levels of economic risk and reward, which are deemed acceptable.
- Testing: Once a suitable process technology is selected it is necessary to build prototypes and to carry out tests at pilot and full scales to confirm the feasibility of the technology and to carry out modifications to the process design to optimize the performance of the separation technology. This assessment is significantly costlier than the previous assessment as it requires physical assets to be successfully completed. As this assessment is conducted, the TRL of a separation technology would normally increase. In addition, information generated in this assessment can be fed back to the detailed economic assessment, as the TRL improvements of the process with better technology/process information would reduce the inherent risk of a project. The output of these assessments can be used to identify weaknesses in the proposed project/technology, and can furthermore be used to set goals for the next steps and to redesign/“tweak” the process design for better performances.
Examples of Resource Recovery Projects
Example 1: Whey Protein
Example 2: Phosphorus Recovery
Other Examples
5. The Role of Process Systems Engineering (PSE) in Resource Recovery
6. SWOT Analysis
- As detailed in previous sections the strengths of resource recovery in the area of bio-based production processes lies in the promise of creating economically lucrative products out of raw materials that otherwise would have no economic value. Compared to the current state of operation, where the bio-based industrial waste streams are treated to meet environmental standards, resource recovery offers an economically, environmentally and social responsible alternative.
- The platform technologies that are required to recover resources from bio-based production streams through separation are relatively well-defined and developed for many resources (as outlined in Section 4). As such, in general, a potential implementation of resource recovery projects requires less effort to be spent on developing base technology.
- The composition and availability of resources in the waste streams of bio-based production processes are relatively constant for a given production process (due to stable composition of the raw material and reactions). As such the developing of a resource recovery system for bio-based production processes is relatively easier than developing a similar resource recovery system for municipal wastewater, where a large variation in resources can occur.
- To our opinion, the overall TRL of the technologies surveyed in Section 4 is relatively high in comparison to other competing technologies such as bioconversion [11,12] and hydrothermal processing [13,15]. As such, from an industrial point of view, the resource recovery through extraction/separation can be a more established technology choice.
- Despite the availability of platform technologies, the actual number of resource recovery projects implemented in practice is low. Therefore, initial pioneering resource recovery projects in the area of bio-based production will require significant process development time
- In situations where the resources available are of low value and must be converted (reacted) into a valuable product, the path of bio-conversation or hydrothermal processing can potentially be a better solution [11,141], rather than a straight resource recovery implementation through platform technologies discussed in Section 3.
- Difficulties in identifying applicable separation technologies for a given resource stream due to lack of successful examples, and the lack of a supporting techno-economic framework makes it difficult to select a suitable separation technique for a given resource stream.
- Despite the availability of multiple, established platform technologies, some high value products such as hesperidin cannot be recovered using these platform technologies. As such, all resources that are available in the bio-based waste stream cannot always be recovered currently.
- The development of a comprehensive framework that considers the maturity of the technology and other underlying techno-economic aspects would allow for a structured approach for assessing the potential impact and future value of resource recovery projects
- The development of an efficient model-based screening tool to identify resource/technology pairs would allow for an efficient identification.
- The tightening environmental regulations and increasing value of resources will result in the concept of resource recovery being economically lucrative for a larger number of applications
- Development of new or adaptation of platform technologies to recover resources of high economic value that are hard to extract from the waste streams has a significant potential.
- Competing process technologies such as biochemical conversion [11,12] or hydrothermal processing [15,141] can become more economically lucrative than the separation technologies discussed in this work. There is also likelihood chance that a new technology makes a leapfrogging discovery that would provide more lucrative economic incentives.
- From a societal (as a result of a regulation) perspective, recycling/recovering raw materials from waste can be challenging. For example, would the society be comfortable with reusing food ingredients that has been recovered from waste streams? However, a counter argument can be made by referring to the whey protein example discussed previously. The concept of Societal readiness level (SRL) can be a good yardstick in understanding and evaluating these concerns [142].
- The economic motivation to extract valuable resources from waste streams is clear. However, from an environmental point of view, there can be situations where the establishment of operations to recover valuable resources can have a negative environmental impact compared to wastewater treatment. The concept of Life cycle analysis (LCA) can be one method to comprehensively evaluate this threat.
7. Future Perspectives
8. Conclusions
- A mapping of resources that are present in typical waste streams from bio-based production processes;
- The media and the state in which the resource is contained in the bio-based waste stream;
- Type of separation techniques that have been used and/or may potentially be used in order to separate a particular resource from a particular stream (not limited to waste streams from bio-based production processes);
- Knowledge of how the presence of other components affects the performance of a particular separation technique when applying such a technique for resource recovery.
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Source | Compound | Present Status | Future Application | Price [USD/t] | Market Size (Million Tons) | Market Value (Billions USD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wastewater from fermentation | Organic acids | Waste | Raw material for bioplastic | 1200 | 2.9 | 3.5 |
Phosphates | Waste | Struvite | 500–800 | - | - | |
Superphosphate | 500–800 | |||||
Di-ammonium-phosphate | 500–800 | |||||
Carbohydrates | Waste | Raw material for bioethanol | 260–953 | - | - | |
Lipids | Waste | Raw material for biodiesel | 600–1400 | - | - | |
Proteins | Waste | Food additive | 700 | - | - | |
Anti-biotics | Waste | Medical Purposes | 4000 | 0.2 | 0.8 | |
Vitamins | Waste | Medical Purposes | 3500 | 0.2 | 0.7 | |
Industrial Enzymes | Waste | Multi-purpose | 3000 | 0.1 | 0.3 | |
Wastewater | Hesperidin | Waste | Medical purposes | 11,000–250,000 | - | - |
Cadmium | Waste | Coating, batteries | 1200 | - | - |
Pore Type (Size Range/nm) | Membrane Type (Pore Size/nm) | Species to Be Retained by the Membrane | Dimensions/nm |
---|---|---|---|
Macropores (>50) | Microfiltration (50–500) | Yeast & fungi | 1000–10,000 |
Bacteria | 300–10,000 | ||
Oil emulsions | 100–10,000 | ||
Mesopores (2–50) | Ultrafiltration (2–50) | Colloidal solids | 10–1000 |
Viruses | 30–300 | ||
Proteins/polysaccharides | 3–10 | ||
Humins/nucleic acids | <3 | ||
Micropores (0.2–2) | Nanofiltration (<2) | Common antibiotics | 0.3–0.8 |
Reverse osmosis (0.3–0.6) | Organic antibiotics | 0.3–0.8 | |
Forward osmosis (0.3–0.6) | Inorganic ions | 0.2–0.4 | |
Water | 0.2 |
Key Aspects | Method | Description |
---|---|---|
Target resources |
| Characterization of the chemical/physical relationship between the solvent and resources can be carried out using the methods listed in situations when the solvent and/or resource do not have chemical and physical properties that are similar to examples found in the literature. |
Separation technology | In situations where the solvent and resource pair have complex interactions and require multiple processes to achieve separation. | |
Economic Potential | Simple steady state models and optimization tools [120] | In situations where the environmental regulations are complex and a stream contains multiple potential contaminants (resources) a simple steady state model and optimization tools can be used to identify the optimal economic potential. |
Economic Potential | Reaction pathway analysis [121] | For situations where the same resource can be recovered in different forms using different (combinations of) techniques |
Detailed economics | Rigorous steady state and dynamic models | The calculation of economics and the risk of implementation (operations) will require the construction of rigorous steady state and dynamic models. For some separation method/solvent/resources combinations, it will be possible to use commercially available software. However, for the unit operations where a model is not available in commercial libraries, custom models are to be developed and coupled with the existing models in the simulators. |
Detailed economics | Knowledge-driven modelling approaches [122] | For separation method/solvent/resources combinations that are complicated to model due to a lack of information, a data driven approach can be taken in developing a rigorous model that can be used in this task |
Technology | Pros | Cons | Class of Resources | TRL |
---|---|---|---|---|
Distillation |
|
| Any resource that has a reasonable boiling point (e.g., acids, alcohols, aldehydes) | High TRL |
Membranes |
|
| Ideal for solid resources when the stream contains all relevant resources (e.g., salts, phosphates) | Medium-High TRL |
Precipitation |
|
| Ideal for recovering specific resources and resources that are hard to concentrate using membranes | Medium-High TRL |
Extraction |
|
| Ideal for recovering hard to distil molecules | High TRL |
Hybrid Processes |
|
| Ideal for complex process streams with multiple valuable compounds that need to be recovered. | Medium TRL |
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Udugama, I.A.; Mansouri, S.S.; Mitic, A.; Flores-Alsina, X.; Gernaey, K.V. Perspectives on Resource Recovery from Bio-Based Production Processes: From Concept to Implementation. Processes 2017, 5, 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr5030048
Udugama IA, Mansouri SS, Mitic A, Flores-Alsina X, Gernaey KV. Perspectives on Resource Recovery from Bio-Based Production Processes: From Concept to Implementation. Processes. 2017; 5(3):48. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr5030048
Chicago/Turabian StyleUdugama, Isuru A., Seyed Soheil Mansouri, Aleksandar Mitic, Xavier Flores-Alsina, and Krist V. Gernaey. 2017. "Perspectives on Resource Recovery from Bio-Based Production Processes: From Concept to Implementation" Processes 5, no. 3: 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr5030048