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Review

Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Biological Effects in Lake Sediments: Implications for Health Risk Assessment

by
Zheng Li
1,2,
Weiwei Zhang
3,
Shuhang Wang
2,
Xia Jiang
2,
Huaicheng Guo
1,
Yong Liu
1 and
Zhenghui Fu
2,*
1
College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
3
Kede College of Capital Normal University, Beijing 102602, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(7), 2140; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072140
Submission received: 4 June 2025 / Revised: 27 June 2025 / Accepted: 2 July 2025 / Published: 5 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Resource Pollution Mitigation Processes)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

Heavy metals have long been a significant and challenging topic in the research and treatment of lake water environments due to their non-degradability and ease of bioaccumulation. With the advancement of industries such as manufacturing, agriculture, and heavy industry, coupled with the increasing demand for heavy metals, the levels of heavy metals entering the environment have been rising annually. This trend necessitates more refined control measures for heavy metals in the environment. Currently, research on heavy metals in lake sediments in China mainly focuses on spatial distribution, morphological analysis, and ecological risk assessment. However, the characteristics of heavy metal migration, transformation, and biological effects are still largely unquantifiable. This article analyzes soil pollution cases in multiple regions of China and summarizes the nine main sources of heavy metals in the environment. It discusses the characteristics and biological effects of heavy metal migration and transformation. Finally, from the perspective of human health risk assessment, it explores the future development direction of heavy metal research.

1. Introduction

Heavy metals have the characteristics of high toxicity and difficult degradation, which can cause pollutants to enter the water environment through human activities, causing significant economic losses to humans and having a significant impact on ecosystems and human health. When heavy metals accumulate to a certain limit in water bodies, they can cause serious harm to the aquatic plant and aquatic animal system, and may directly or indirectly affect human health through the food chain [1,2]. In recent years, with the development of industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural modernization in China, the discharge of external pollutants has rapidly increased. Various major rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in China are generally affected by varying degrees of heavy metal pollution, with a pollution rate of up to 80.1% in their sediment. The Ministry of Water Resources has evaluated the water resource quality of more than 700 rivers and about 100,000 km of river length in China, and found that nearly half of the river length is polluted, and more than 90% of urban water bodies are severely polluted [3,4,5]. Heavy metal pollution has become one of the most prominent environmental problems in water, soil, and air multimedia. The migration process of heavy metals in nature is shown in Figure 1.
As one of the main environmental pollutants, heavy metal elements accumulate in sediments through adsorption, sedimentation, or flocculation after entering lakes, purifying the overlying water to a certain extent. However, when the environmental conditions of the overlying water change, heavy metals in sediments will be re-released through suspension, desorption, chelation, chelation, and various transformation processes, causing “secondary pollution” of the water body [6,7]. At the same time, sediments play an important role in the migration, transformation, and occurrence of nutrients and pollutants in natural water bodies due to the presence of a large amount of various inorganic, organic, and inorganic organic colloids, such as natural organic matter, living microorganisms, hydrated iron and manganese oxides, and minerals [8,9,10]. They are the source and sink of pollutants in natural water bodies. Secondly, due to the difficulty of biodegradation of heavy metals and their tendency to bioaccumulate and amplify along the food chain, they may ultimately pose a threat to human health and survival. Therefore, the transformation of heavy metals in sediment caused by various biogeochemical processes occurring in environmental media is increasingly receiving attention as a “source”/”sink” relationship [11,12,13,14].
Meanwhile, land use plays an important role in the material migration and transformation process of natural water bodies such as lakes. Land use, as a comprehensive reflection of various human activities related to land use, is the most common, direct, and profound factor affecting soil quality changes [15]. The properties of soil temperature, humidity, and texture change correspondingly with changes in land use patterns, which can easily affect the microbial activity in the soil to a certain extent, thereby affecting the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil. In recent years, due to economic efficiency and related policies, the land use patterns in some regions of China are undergoing a transformation. For example, due to the pursuit of higher economic efficiency, the rice planting area in southern China decreased by 11.8% and the vegetable planting area increased by 42.8% from 1990 to 2006. Changing land use patterns can alleviate the threat of human resource management to the environment. Afforestation can alter soil pH and organic matter content, and affect soil heavy metal solubility [5]. Therefore, changes in land use can directly or indirectly affect the toxicity, transport, and enrichment of pollutants in soil by altering soil structure, physicochemical properties, and microbial activity. For example, among different land use types such as cultivated land, forest land, and garden land, forest land has a relatively high soil environmental quality status [15]. The previous extensive agricultural cultivation methods resulted in a decrease in soil nutrient content, ultimately leading to soil degradation. The soil quality level of unused land and saline alkali land shows the lowest state, and the relatively good soil environment of forest land is due to the fact that human activities have not directly affected the accumulation of heavy metals in soil. The impact of human activities on land environmental quality can be inferred from changes in land use processes [15,16]. For example, there are significant differences in the impact of upstream water conservation areas, midstream development and utilization areas, and downstream lake buffer zones on the water environment quality and aquatic ecosystem health status of lakes [17]. The upstream water conservation area mainly aims to conserve water sources and control soil erosion, ensuring the production and flow of clean water from the source. The development and utilization zone in the middle reaches mainly aims to control the generation of pollutants, reduce pollutant emissions, and achieve the convergence and transportation of clean water through small watershed management and ecological restoration. The buffer zone of a lake is a buffer and transition zone that buffers the impact of human activities on the water body of the lake within the watershed and ensures the guarantee of clear water entering the lake. Therefore, the land use type directly affects the enrichment of heavy metals in the soil around the lake, and indirectly affects the pollution of heavy metals in the lake sediment. The land use pattern plays a particularly important role in the spatial layout of lake basins, and is of great significance for achieving the production, convergence, and transportation of clean water in the basin, ensuring the ecological health of the basin and the quality of the lake water environment [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17].
To sum up, the current research on heavy metals at home and abroad focuses on the single- or dual-medium migration and transformation process of “water soil gas”, such as the Yangtze River [18], Poyang Lake [18,19], Golmud River [20], Dabusen Salt Lake [20], Chaohu Lake [21], Dianchi Lake [22], the Yarlung Zangbo River [3,4], and other important watersheds. The research content mainly focuses on the spatial distribution, relationship analysis, source analysis, risk assessment, and other aspects of heavy metals in river and lake water and sediment. A lack of systematic research makes it difficult to accurately characterize the risks that regional heavy metal pollution poses to the overall environment. Based on this, this article starts with the current status of soil heavy metal pollution and watershed water sediment pollution, attempting to find evidence of heavy metal migration and transformation in multiple media, providing a scientific basis for regional heavy metal pollution prevention and control, and residents’ health protection. At the same time, this research evidence can also provide reference for the fine control and research direction of heavy metals in the water soil gas environment medium in the future.

2. Source Analysis of Heavy Metals in Soil and Sediment

The sources of soil heavy metal pollution include natural sources and human-made sources. The natural sources mainly include geological activities, such as earthquake and volcanic eruption, which lead to the exposure of heavy metal elements on the earth’s surface, resulting in local high content; the human-made pollution mainly comes from metal mining, metal smelting, metal industry, irrigation (especially sewage irrigation), solid waste sludge, garbage, pesticides and fertilizers, and atmospheric deposition, as shown in Table 1.
The bulletin of the national soil pollution survey released in 2014 announced the results of the first national soil pollution survey in China. The specific investigation results are shown in Table 2.
According to the communique, “the overall situation of soil environment in China is not optimistic.” In some areas, soil pollution is serious, the quality of cultivated land soil environment is worrying, the soil environmental problems of industrial and mining wasteland are prominent, and the activities of industrial and mining, agriculture and other people, as well as the high background value of soil environment, are the main reasons for soil pollution or exceeding the standard. The soil pollution or exceeding the standard is mainly caused by the high background value of the soil environment and industrial, mining, and agricultural activities. The main soil pollutants in China are inorganic pollutants (mainly Cd, Hg, As, Cu, Pb, Cr, Zn, and Ni), accounting for 82.8% of the total over standard points. According to Table 2, it can be seen that the main soil pollutants in China are inorganic pollutants (mainly Cd, Hg, As, Cu, Pb, Cr, Zn, and Ni), accounting for 82.8% of the total over standard points. Among the surveyed 690 heavily polluting enterprises’ land and 5846 soil points in the surrounding area, 36.3% of the points exceeded the standard, mainly involving industries such as black metals, non-ferrous metals, leather products, papermaking, petroleum and coal, chemical pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber and plastic, mineral products, metal products, and electricity. Among the 775 soil sites surveyed in 81 industrial wastelands, 34.9% exceeded the standard [23]. The main pollutants were zinc, mercury, lead, chromium, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mainly involving industries such as the chemical industry, mining, and metallurgy. In addition, among the 1672 soil sites surveyed in 70 mining areas, 33.4% of the sites exceeded the standard, and the main pollutants were cadmium, lead, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Among them, the pollution of cadmium, arsenic, lead, and other pollutants in the surrounding soil of non-ferrous metal mining areas was more serious [24,25,26,27].

3. Characteristics and Biological Effects of Heavy Metal Migration and Transformation

3.1. Research on Heavy Metal Migration and Transformation Based on Adsorption/Desorption

Heavy metals belong to non-biodegradable pollutants, and the migration and transformation of heavy metals in sediments in the environment are mainly manifested in their adsorption/desorption between solid and water phases, accompanied by some microbial interactions in sediments and water bodies. Therefore, studying the adsorption/desorption behavior between sediments and heavy metals has become a necessary prerequisite for controlling sediment heavy metal pollution. The research on adsorption and desorption began in the 1970s, and foreign scholars published a large number of works, including Aquatic Surface Chemistry (1987) [28], Aquatic Chemical Dynamics [29], and Aquatic Chemistry: Interface and Interspecific Processes [30].
In recent years, more scholars have focused on the effects of various heavy metals on adsorption and desorption, as well as the effects of animals, plants, and microorganisms on heavy metal adsorption and desorption. For example, Davari et al. [31] studied the chemical adsorption and desorption reactions of Ni and Cd in polluted soil in single-ion and binary-ion systems. The results showed that in single-ion systems, Ni and Cd adsorption followed Langmuir-type adsorption, while in binary-ion systems, Ni and Cd adsorption exhibited antagonistic effects, which means that two ions compete for the same type of adsorption site. Zhu et al. [32] investigated the effect of algal growth on the exchange of Cd at the interface between water and sediment. The results showed that the decomposition of aquatic plants also affects the conversion of nitrogen and phosphorus in water and the microbial community in sediment, thereby further affecting the release of Cd.
For the study of sediment and heavy metal adsorption/desorption behavior, adsorption isotherm equations and kinetic and thermodynamic equations or models are generally used to describe it. The commonly used equilibrium adsorption models include the Linear model, Langmuir model, the Freundlich model, the BET model, etc. [33]. Quasi-first-order and quasi-second-order kinetic equations, as well as particle diffusion models, are also commonly used models to describe the kinetics of adsorption processes. Although the Langmuir and Freundlich models have been widely used to describe the adsorption behavior of heavy metals [34,35,36], in general, these models can only describe the adsorption behavior of single homogeneous pollutants well. For example, Hiemstra et al. studied the adsorption behavior of goethite on P [37], which is not applicable to non-homogeneous sediments. Therefore, when studying the adsorption behavior of heavy metals by sediments, a modified model is usually used for research. Due to the dynamic equilibrium process of heavy metal migration at the sediment water interface, when heavy metal elements reach adsorption/desorption equilibrium at the sediment water interface, the critical concentration of this adsorption/desorption equilibrium state is defined as the critical adsorption concentration of heavy metals. The vast majority of studies, both domestically and internationally, use isothermal adsorption experiments between sediments and heavy metals to further calculate the adsorption critical value by fitting an isothermal adsorption model. When the concentration of heavy metals (pore water or overlying water) at the upper boundary of the sedimentary phase is lower than this value, sediments are prone to release heavy metals; otherwise, they are retained. Therefore, under certain conditions, sediments become the “source” or “sink” of heavy metals [38,39].

3.2. Research on the Response Relationship Between Heavy Metals, Microorganisms, and Resistance Genes

3.2.1. The Response Relationship Between Heavy Metals and Microorganisms

The response of microbial communities to heavy metal pollution is a highly concerned research topic. In recent years, scholars have conducted extensive and in-depth investigations in this field, gradually recognizing the impact of heavy metals on microbial-mediated ecological processes [40]. The biomass and activity of microorganisms often exhibit a significant response relationship under the influence of heavy metal pollution. The impact of heavy metals on microbial communities can be inhibited, promoted, or not significantly affected, which is related to the microbial community itself, the types of heavy metals, and the degree of pollution. The structure and function of microbial communities can also undergo changes, including a decrease in diversity and alterations in community composition [41,42]. Previous studies have shown that high concentrations of heavy metal pollution can lead to a decrease in microbial biomass [43]. The study also found that enzyme activity in soil and sediment can be disrupted by heavy metals, and the presence of heavy metals may inhibit the activity of these enzymes, thereby affecting key ecological functions of microbial communities. Overall, the changes in microbial ecological characteristics caused by heavy metal pollution not only have a direct impact on ecosystems, but may also affect a wider range of environmental quality issues. Therefore, a deep understanding and monitoring of these impacts is crucial for developing effective environmental protection strategies.
Heavy metal stress can determine the functional role of microorganisms and the state of microbial communities. Microorganisms that are difficult to survive under heavy metal stress are called “sensitive”, while those that adapt to heavy metal stress are classified as “resistant”. In addition, microorganisms can alleviate heavy metal stress in the environment by passivating or enriching heavy metals, and these microorganisms are called “actors” [44].
The response of microbial communities to heavy metals involves a series of complex biochemical processes. Different microorganisms may have different stress responses to the same heavy metal, and their response mechanisms can be roughly divided into a non-specific response and a specific response. A specific response mainly refers to the transport, transformation, and efflux of heavy metals mediated by specific genes carried by chromosomes or plasmids. A non-specific response mainly includes five aspects: (1) Metabolism Independent Biosorption. Both living and dead cells can adsorb heavy metals, and the adsorption effect mainly depends on the surface charge of bacterial cell walls, surface functional groups (such as carboxyl, amino, hydroxyl, phosphate, and thiol groups), and the interaction with adjacent heavy metal ions [45]. (2) Extracellular Polymeric Substances. EPS has a high affinity for soluble compounds in water, including heavy metals. Bacteria that produce EPS can capture heavy metal ions on their cell surfaces, such as Bacillus cereus BW 201B [46] and Enterobacter cloacae [47] isolated from the ocean, which can bind heavy metals by secreting EPS. Therefore, EPS provides a permeation barrier against heavy metals to completely prevent toxic metals from entering cells, thereby protecting sensitive cellular components. (3) Biosurfactants. Heavy metals have a high affinity for ionic surfactants, while cationic biosurfactants can bind to heavy metals through ion exchange and electrostatic interactions [48,49]. (4) Sulfide-based Precipitation. Sulfur-reducing bacteria can reduce sulfate ions to H2S, which can then react with heavy metal ions in aqueous solutions to form corresponding sulfides and precipitate them [50]. Due to the extremely low solubility of metal sulfides, the precipitate has good stability and low mobility. This non-specific reaction is not only beneficial to the bacteria themselves, but also to other nearby organisms. (5) Metal Binding with Proteins. Metallothioneins (MTs) are a class of cysteine-rich proteins in living organisms. The abundant Cys residues make them contain multiple thiol groups that can bind to heavy metals. At present, research on prokaryotic MT is still very limited, and it is known that MTs exist in both Pseudomonas aeruginosa and marine cyanobacteria. MTs have been found to bind divalent cations such as Zn2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, and Hg2+ [51]. Numerous studies have shown that microorganisms are highly sensitive to heavy metal stress and can initiate response mechanisms earlier than animals and plants. Therefore, changes in microbial community composition and structure can serve as important indicators for predicting the degree of heavy metal pollution.

3.2.2. The Response Relationship Between Heavy Metals and Resistance Genes

Metal resistance genes (MRGs) are evolved and expressed by microorganisms under heavy metal pollution stress, demonstrating their adaptability and survival ability to harsh environmental conditions [52]. Bacteria have been exposed to heavy metal stress for 3.5 billion years [53], and the mechanism of heavy metal resistance not only helps microorganisms resist the toxicity of heavy metals, but also drives the biogeochemical cycling of heavy metals. The impact of heavy metals on their resistance genes is mainly reflected in microbial communities, where some bacteria have evolved corresponding heavy metal resistance genes to cope with the toxic effects of heavy metals. In order to resist the environmental pressure caused by excessive heavy metals, bacteria have evolved various targeted resistance mechanisms. Through active efflux, permeation barriers, extracellular/intracellular isolation, enzyme detoxification, and reducing the sensitivity of heavy metals to cellular targets, key components of bacterial cells are protected from the toxicity of heavy metals and maintain their normal physiological functions [54]. One of the main mechanisms by which bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals is the efflux pump system, through which harmful substances are expelled. Active efflux is the process by which bacteria use efflux pumps to actively remove heavy metals from cells. Many bacteria can remove heavy metal ions from cells through various transport proteins on the cytoplasmic membrane. Permeation barrier rejection is the process by which bacteria prevent heavy metals from entering through the cell membrane. Extracellular/intracellular isolation is the process by which bacteria chelate heavy metals inside or outside the cell to reduce their toxicity. Enzymatic detoxification refers to the enzymatic conversion of heavy metals into less toxic or volatile forms. In addition, bacteria have evolved many targeted resistance mechanisms and heavy metal resistance genes (MRGs) to resist specific heavy metals. These targeted resistance mechanisms all have corresponding heavy metal resistance genes, so microorganisms can expand their ecological niche under heavy metal stress by increasing the expression and abundance of these related genes [55,56].
Linking genes with microbial resistance to heavy metals is of great significance for understanding the development of microbial survival strategies, potential environmental risks, and their ecological roles in heavy metal biogeochemical cycles. The relative abundance of resistance genes such as tetM, blaOXA, tetW, ermF, ermB, etc., in soil samples from Scotland is significantly positively correlated with the degree of Cu pollution [57]. Meanwhile, resistance genes related to Cr morphological transformation, such as blaCTX-M, tetM, and blaOXA, are positively correlated with their content, while tetW is correlated with Ni content, and tetM genes are correlated with pollution levels of Ni, Cu, and Pb. Berg et al. [58] found that microorganisms have high tolerance to Cu in areas with severe Cu pollution, and screened indigenous bacteria containing Cu-related resistance genes. The relative abundance of the heavy metal resistance gene copA is the highest in the grassland ecosystem of a copper mine tailings storage area in Shanxi Province, which is consistent with the higher level of Cu pollution in the mining area compared to other heavy metal pollution. However, other resistance genes, such as arsB and arsC associated with high abundance As, are not significantly correlated with their corresponding heavy metal content [55,56]. Therefore, the abundance of heavy metal resistance genes may vary under different environmental conditions, reflecting the different response mechanisms and adaptation strategies of microorganisms to heavy metal stress. Environmental factors such as light, temperature, bacterial type, and diversity can also affect the expression and abundance of heavy metal resistance genes, thereby affecting the adaptability of microorganisms to heavy metal stress. There are also studies indicating that the combined pollution of antibiotics and heavy metals in the environment can lead to the development of multiple microbial resistance, enhancing the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes and heavy metal resistance genes. Zhu et al. [59] studied the different distribution patterns of MRGs profiles between heavy metal-polluted dry land, rice fields, sediment, dust, and pig manure samples. The results showed that as the comprehensive pollution index of heavy metals increased, the absolute abundance of MRGs in dry land soil, rice soil, and dust samples increased. On the contrary, as the comprehensive pollution index of heavy metals in sediment samples increases, a decrease in the absolute abundance of MRGs is observed. These results indicate that changes in the abundance of MRGs are not always consistent with heavy metal pollution levels and are largely dependent on the habitat. One possible explanation is that the abundance of MRGs may be influenced by various biotic and abiotic factors, including heavy metal concentrations and forms of Ph, organic matter content, nutritional conditions, and microbial community composition. Some studies also suggest that the effectiveness of nutrients can alleviate heavy metal toxicity and microbial community selection pressure, thereby affecting the distribution of MRGs. In summary, the expression and abundance of heavy metal resistance genes are related to the distribution characteristics of heavy metals in soil and environmental factors, and are complex and habitat-dependent distribution patterns. The widespread heavy metal stress in the environment promotes its transmission and diffusion risk through the selective action of heavy metal resistance genes. Conversely, the abundance of heavy metal resistance genes is an important response of microorganisms to heavy metal stress.
The lake ecosystem is considered an environmental reservoir for the reproduction, diffusion, and survival of resistance genes, as well as providing services for humans and animals (such as safe drinking water, agricultural water, and inland fisheries). Sediments, as an important microbial gene pool in the natural environment, contain resistance genes that not only reflect the presence of pollutant selection pressure, but may also have potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems and human health. In recent years, researchers have mainly focused on detecting antibiotic resistance genes in lake sediment. Previous studies have detected resistance genes using high-throughput sequencing technology, including but not limited to β-lactam, aminoglycoside, and tetracycline antibiotic resistance genes [60,61,62]. The presence of these genes suggests potential antibiotic contamination in lake sediment, and studies have shown that the relative abundance of antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial community components in sediment samples is significantly influenced by wastewater from wastewater treatment plants [63]. Currently, scholars have also discovered heavy metal resistance genes in multiple lakes around the world [64]. Continuous exposure to heavy metals such as Cu and Zn not only promotes the emergence of heavy metal resistance genes, but also accelerates the co-selection process of antibiotic resistance genes [43]. The spread of resistance genes in sediments is influenced by microorganisms and environmental factors, which are also affected by human activities and environmental changes [65]. At present, many studies have been conducted to reveal the distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in sediments, but there is still a lack of comprehensive understanding of heavy metal resistance genes in sediments and their response to pollution levels [62]. Understanding the distribution, diversity, and transmission mechanisms of heavy metal resistance genes in lake sediment is of great significance for scientifically understanding the evolution process of resistance genes in the natural environment and maintaining the stability of aquatic ecosystems. It can provide a scientific basis for protecting the aquatic environment and human health.

3.3. Study on the Impact of Heavy Metal Pollution on Aquatic Organisms

Heavy metals have characteristics such as bioaccumulation, toxicity, and persistence, and their impact on aquatic communities is multifaceted, including damage to biodiversity, reduction in ecosystem functions, and increased ecological toxicity risks. Therefore, studying the effects of heavy metals on organisms such as plankton, benthic organisms, and fish, as well as their accumulation characteristics and ecological toxicity risks in organisms, is of great significance for the protection of aquatic ecosystems.
Plankton, benthic organisms, and fish are important components of aquatic ecosystems, and heavy metal pollution directly affects the survival and reproduction of aquatic organisms, leading to changes in the structure and function of biological communities. After entering the lake water, most of the metals accumulate continuously in the sediment. When the accumulation of heavy metals in the sediment exceeds a certain threshold, it will inhibit the growth of benthic animals that inhabit the lake sediment, thereby destroying the benthic animal community [66]. Costas et al. [67] found a significant correlation between sediment heavy metal content and benthic community structural diversity indicators. EPT insects were significantly higher in sites with high-sediment heavy metal content compared to the reference point. Bere et al. [68] found that low levels of heavy metal pollution in sediments still have a significant impact on the composition of benthic animal communities.
Different types of aquatic organisms have varying abilities to enrich and accumulate heavy metals. Generally speaking, phytoplankton have a stronger ability to accumulate heavy metals than planktonic animals, while benthic animals have a stronger tolerance for heavy metals than fish. At present, there has been considerable attention paid to the accumulation of heavy metals in aquatic organisms in relevant studies. Matyar et al. found that Gram-negative bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria exhibit strong tolerance to heavy metals Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, and Hg when studying the effects of heavy metal pollution on Mediterranean bacteria [69]. Kalantzi et al. found that phytoplankton have a higher ability to accumulate heavy metals than planktonic animals. This is because algae have a higher ability to directly accumulate heavy metals from water through multiple mechanisms, and dead algae can also accumulate heavy metals through cell surface adsorption [70]. Wang et al. found that gastropod insects, mainly composed of chironomatodes, are more tolerant to heavy metal pollution, and their density is significantly positively correlated with sediment Cr and Pb content [71]. Kong and other studies on the accumulation effect of benthos in Taihu Lake on heavy metals show that the enrichment of Corbicula fluminea on Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ni, and other elements is higher than that of Periploca aeruginosa [72]. Yu et al. studied the accumulation characteristics of heavy metals in the food chain of Taihu Lake. The results showed that the biological concentration factor of all aquatic organisms in the food chain was the highest in plankton, followed by benthos, and the lowest in fish [73].
The enrichment of heavy metals in organisms not only affects the growth and reproduction of aquatic organisms, but may also increase the risk of biological toxicity, resulting in direct toxic effects on organisms. The toxic effects of heavy metals on aquatic organisms include damage to cell membrane structure, obstruction of active transport of nutrients, prevention of cell division, interruption of cellular oxidative movement, and differences in the inhibitory effects of different heavy metals on microbial cells or enzyme activity. For example, Zn2+ in sediment can inhibit the cellular activity of microorganisms, hindering their normal physiological activities [74]. Heavy metal ions such as Hg, Cd, and Pb can bind to large molecules such as nucleic acids and proteases in microorganisms, causing them to lose their activity. In addition, heavy metals can also cause gene mutations, DNA strand breaks, and inhibit the synthesis of biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids in microorganisms [75], ultimately disrupting the community composition structure of planktonic animals and plants and affecting the stability of aquatic ecosystems.

4. Discussion

The research on heavy metal health risk assessment and refined control methods aims to completely eliminate all environmental hazards caused by heavy metal pollution or reduce these hazards to the lowest achievable level through technological means. At present, research on the distribution characteristics, morphology analysis, and risk assessment of heavy metals in sediments of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs has been widely reported, and detection and remediation methods for heavy metal elements have been maturely applied in experiments. However, there are still many key issues that require further investigation. The following text discusses in detail the challenges and future development of heavy metal health risk assessment and remediation.
(1) In practical applications, it is often impossible to quantitatively evaluate the health and ecological risk levels caused by heavy metal pollution. The lack of basic data in China has, to some extent, hindered the progress of health risk assessment. In addition, the diversity of environmental pollutants, coupled with insufficient toxicity data for many pollutants, further limits the progress of health risk assessment. In order to improve the accuracy of the assessment, it is necessary to collect basic pollutant data specific to the region or exposure data that meets local conditions. This includes mineral-rich areas, groundwater around mining areas, areas facing water scarcity, drinking water sources, and high-emission areas. In addition, health risk assessment for pollution-sensitive populations will become an important research area.
(2) The long-term effects of heavy metal pollution in sediment on its ecosystem and the corresponding control measures will be the focus of future research.
The long-term effects of heavy metals in sediments on ecosystems require long-term monitoring data to provide basic support. Compared with the monitoring data of developed countries over the past century, China’s heavy metal monitoring data needs to continue to accumulate and improve. The continuous accumulation of heavy metals in sediments can have toxic effects on benthic organisms and other organisms, and accumulate and expand through the food chain, ultimately affecting human health. At present, the ecological hazards of heavy metals in sediments are only in the experimental research stage, and on-site exposure tests, subchronic/chronic toxicity tests, and accumulation toxicity tests urgently need to be carried out.
(3) Research on evaluation benchmark values based on toxicology experiments.
Regardless of which evaluation method is used, an evaluation benchmark is needed to compare it in order to assess the highest level of sedimentary material. At the same time, the determination of benchmark establishment methods should fully consider the environmental characteristics of the sediment in the protected area to improve accuracy and specificity.

5. Conclusions

This article analyzes soil pollution cases in multiple regions of China and summarizes the nine main sources of heavy metals in the environment. Discussed the biological effects of heavy metals and the reaction relationship between heavy metals and resistance genes. From the above, it can be seen that there has been some progress in the basic theoretical research on the ecological effects of heavy metals and microorganisms, as well as the reaction relationship between heavy metals and resistance genes (MRGs). However, there has not been a breakthrough in the field of heavy metal remediation. The main problem is due to the heterogeneity of the sediment environment itself, coupled with the complex changes in external environmental conditions, making it difficult to determine the critical toxicity values of heavy metals to soil microorganisms under different sediment conditions and to find valuable microbiological evaluation indicators. Therefore, a unified sediment heavy metal environmental quality has not yet been quantitatively developed. With the continuous development of biotechnology and computer science, it is necessary to study the impact mechanism of heavy metals on soil microorganisms at the molecular level, in order to provide a scientific basis for further research and application of bioremediation technology.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.L. and W.Z.; methodology, S.W.; software, Z.L.; validation, Z.L.; W.Z. and Z.F.; formal analysis, X.J.; investigation, X.J.; resources, S.W. and X.J.; data curation, H.G. and Y.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.L. and W.Z.; writing—review and editing, Z.L. and W.Z.; visualization, Z.L. and W.Z.; supervision, Z.F.; project administration, S.W. and X.J.; funding acquisition, Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Open Research Fund of Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (2024HPYKFYB04) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution (2024YSKY-01).

Data Availability Statement

The datasets used or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Processes 13 02140 g001
Figure 1. Diagram of the source and migration of heavy metals in nature.
Figure 1. Diagram of the source and migration of heavy metals in nature.
Processes 13 02140 g001
Table 1. Main anthropogenic sources of heavy metal pollution.
Table 1. Main anthropogenic sources of heavy metal pollution.
Sources of Heavy Metal PollutionHeavy Metal Species
Mining, petrochemical, thermal power generation, smelting and processing discharge wastewater, slag, and waste gasCd, Hg, Cu, Zn, Fe, S, As, Pb, Cr, Ni, Mo
Floating and sinking during coal and petrochemical combustionCr, Hg, As, Pb
Electroplating wastewaterCr, Pb, Sn, Ni, Cu
Wastewater from plastics, batteries, electronics, and cosmetics industriesHg, Pb, Cd
Wastewater from mercury industryHg
Wastewater from dyestuff and chemical tannery industryCr, Cd
Automobile exhaustPb
Chemical fertilizer and pesticideCd, As
Table 2. Typical plots of soil pollution in China and the surrounding areas.
Table 2. Typical plots of soil pollution in China and the surrounding areas.
Serial NumberName of Typical PlotIndustry InvolvedMain PollutantsTotal Soil Survey PointsOver Standard Rate
1Land for heavily polluted enterprisesFerrous metals, non-ferrous metals, leather products, paper making, petroleum and coal, chemical medicine, chemical fiber, rubber and plastic, mineral products, metal products, electric power, and other industries.Cd, Hg, Cu, Zn, Fe, S, As, Pb, Cr5846 36.3%
2Derelict landChemical industry, mining industry, metallurgy industry, and other industriesZn, Hg, Pb, Cr, As, PAHs77534.9%
3Industrial parkMetal smelting industrial park
Chemical Industry Park		Cd, Pb, Cu, As, Zn, PAHs252329.4%
4Solid waste centralized treatment and disposal site/Mainly inorganic and organic pollution135121.3%
5Oil production area/Petroleum hydrocarbons and PAHs49423.6%
6Mining area/Cd, Pb, As, and PAHs167233.4%
7Sewage irrigation area/Cd, As, and PAHs5526.4%
8On both sides of trunk highway Pb, Zn, As, and PAHs157820.3%
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Li, Z.; Zhang, W.; Wang, S.; Jiang, X.; Guo, H.; Liu, Y.; Fu, Z. Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Biological Effects in Lake Sediments: Implications for Health Risk Assessment. Processes 2025, 13, 2140. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072140

AMA Style

Li Z, Zhang W, Wang S, Jiang X, Guo H, Liu Y, Fu Z. Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Biological Effects in Lake Sediments: Implications for Health Risk Assessment. Processes. 2025; 13(7):2140. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072140

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Zheng, Weiwei Zhang, Shuhang Wang, Xia Jiang, Huaicheng Guo, Yong Liu, and Zhenghui Fu. 2025. "Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Biological Effects in Lake Sediments: Implications for Health Risk Assessment" Processes 13, no. 7: 2140. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072140

APA Style

Li, Z., Zhang, W., Wang, S., Jiang, X., Guo, H., Liu, Y., & Fu, Z. (2025). Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Biological Effects in Lake Sediments: Implications for Health Risk Assessment. Processes, 13(7), 2140. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072140

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