Next Article in Journal
Simulation-Based Study of NH3/H2-Dual Fueled HCCI Engine Performance: Effects of Blending Ratio, Equivalence Ratio, and Compression Ratio Using Detailed Chemical Kinetic Modeling
Previous Article in Journal
Classification Method and Application of Carbonate Reservoir Based on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Logging Data: Taking the Asmari Formation of the M Oilfield as an Example
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Processes
Volume 13
Issue 7
10.3390/pr13072048
processes-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Revolutionizing Electrospinning: A Review of Alternating Current and Pulsed Voltage Techniques for Nanofiber Production

by
Yasir Al Saif
and
Richárd Cselkó
*
Department of Electric Power Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest, Hungary
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(7), 2048; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072048
Submission received: 30 April 2025 / Revised: 9 June 2025 / Accepted: 25 June 2025 / Published: 27 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Properties and Applications of Electrospun Fibers)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Electrospinning has evolved into a vital nanofiber production technique with broad applications across biomedical, environmental, and industrial sectors. Alternating current (AC) and pulsed voltage (PV) electrospinning offer transformative alternatives by utilizing time-varying electric fields to overcome the drawbacks of DC electrospinning by employing an oscillating electric field that facilitates balanced charge dynamics, improved jet stability, and collectorless operation, leading to enhanced fiber alignment and significantly higher production rates, with reports exceeding 20 g/h. Conversely, PV electrospinning applies intermittent high-voltage pulses, offering precise control over jet initiation and termination. This method enables the fabrication of ultrafine, bead-free, and structurally uniform fibers, making it particularly suitable for biomedical applications such as controlled drug delivery and tissue scaffolds. Both techniques support tunable fiber morphology, reduced diameter variability, and improved structural uniformity, contributing to the advancement of high-performance nanofiber materials. This review examines the underlying electrohydrodynamic mechanisms, charge transport behavior, equipment configurations, and performance metrics associated with AC and PV electrospinning. It further highlights key innovations, current limitations in scalability and standardization, and prospective research directions.

1. Introduction

Electrospinning is an exceptional method for producing nanofibers from micrometers to tens of nanometers. Its simplicity, cost-efficiency, and scalability make it suitable for filtration, energy storage, tissue engineering applications, medical administration, and wearable electronics [1,2,3]. Conventional DC electrospinning also shows some barriers, which can be avoided only with very delicate adjustments of the process, such as residual charge accumulation, bead formation, and the requirement for a conductive collector [4,5]. These barriers affect fiber morphology, reduce throughput, and limit the scaling of the process for commercial manufacturing. To solve these issues, alternating current and pulsed voltage electrospinning were explored. The early principles of AC field application in electrohydrodynamics were demonstrated through AC electrospraying, which helped establish the foundation for subsequent AC electrospinning innovations [6]. Figure 1 shows the process of elctrospinning with polymer solution in syringe. These methods involve a time-varying electric field that affects jet formation and fiber morphology as compared to DC electrospinning [7,8,9]. AC electrospinning was first recorded by Kessick and Tepper in 2004 [10], and it utilizes an oscillating electric field, sinusoidal alternating polarity every half cycle, which reduces the charge accumulation on the fibers. It facilitates collector-less arrangements, and fibers are ejected into free space by a phenomenon known as electric wind [11,12]. AC electrospinning can achieve higher throughput, better stability, and production of cloud-like nanofibers [13]. Figure 1 shows the vertical setup of the electrospinning process.
Pokorny et al. demonstrated improved spinnability and fiber homogeneity by optimizing the frequency and waveform of the AC electric field and achieving higher throughput rates over 10 g/h deposition in a collector-free manner [15]. On the other hand, pulsed voltage electrospinning uses intermittent voltage application, which provides superior control over the initiation and termination of the jet. This enables the precise control of fiber length and spacing, making it especially good for generating chopped or segmented fibers for drug delivery systems or tissue scaffolds [16]. Investigations conducted by Li et al. and Mirek et al. indicated that changing the duty cycles and pulse frequency affects fiber shape, reduces fiber diameter, and improves bead formation and uniformity in the generated fibers [5,16]. Recent advancements in simulations and diagnostic instruments have enhanced understanding of the impact of electric field distribution in non-DC configurations. Di Lorenzo et al. conducted finite element method (FEM) simulations of electrospinning process, discovering significant edge effects with non-uniform electric field that influence jet trajectory and fiber deposition [17]. Further utilization of image processing software facilitates an efficient investigation of fiber deposition patterns and collector coverage in various electrical and geometric situations. This review thoroughly examines AC and pulsed voltage electrospinning, including its mechanics, critical parameters, experimental results, and prospective applications. This paper is meant to clarify how these technologies are transforming the field of nanofiber production by critically assessing the existing literature and new trends.

2. Fundamentals of Electrospinning

2.1. Principles of Electrospinning

When a high voltage is applied to a polymer solution or melt at the tip of a spinneret, the resulting electrostatic force must overcome the liquid’s surface tension, causing the droplet to deform into a conical shape known as the Taylor cone [18]. Upon reaching a critical voltage threshold, a charged jet of polymer is ejected from the tip of the cone and accelerates toward a collector under the influence of the electric field [1], as the jet travels, it stretches and thins due to coulombic repulsion and elongational forces. The solvent evaporates, or the melt solidifies during flight, forming continuous nanofibers on the collector. The process is characterized by instabilities, such as bending and whipping motions, which play a pivotal role in reducing the jet diameter and influencing fiber morphology and uniformity [19]. Yazgan et al. demonstrated that the controlled modulation of these instabilities can tailor surface topographies of fibers [20], while Dayal and Kyu showed that rapid solvent evaporation and phase separation can yield porous structures, expanding applications in filtration and drug delivery [21]. A multitude of parameters influence the electrospinning process and the resulting fiber characteristics. Polymer concentration significantly affects the fiber-forming ability, at low concentrations, insufficient chain entanglement results in bead formation, whereas optimal concentrations enable stable jet formation and smooth fibers [22]. Excessively high concentrations, however, can increase viscosity beyond the limits of spinneret extrusion [23]. Zuo et al. identified that every polymer system has a specific concentration window that balances entanglement and spinnability [24]. Conductivity, governed by ionic content, influences the charge density on the jet. Higher conductivity enhances electrostatic stretching, thereby producing thinner and more uniform fibers. Wang et al. confirmed that increasing solution conductivity leads to finer fibers with fewer defects [24]. Surface tension also plays a critical role. Low surface tension helps initiate the jet, but overly low values may destabilize the process and promote bead formation [20]. The use of binary or ternary solvent systems allows researchers to optimize both surface tension and evaporation rate to control fiber porosity and structure [21]. The voltage, flow rate, and spinneret–collector distance must be carefully optimized, low voltage may not initiate a jet, while excessive voltage increases whipping instabilities. Likewise, an imbalanced flow rate can either lead to insufficient polymer delivery or flooding, resulting in bead formation or fiber breakage. Collector distance affects jet trajectory and solvent evaporation; too short a distance may produce wet fibers, while excessive distance can lead to fiber breakup [8]. Humidity and temperature significantly affect solvent evaporation and final fiber structure. High humidity slows solvent evaporation, often leading to porous or hollow fibers, while low temperatures can inhibit evaporation and create denser, thicker fibers [20].
Maintaining consistent ambient conditions is crucial for process reproducibility. The collector’s configuration influences fiber alignment and mat morphology. A static flat collector yields random fibers, while a high-speed rotating drum can produce aligned fibers suitable for tissue engineering [2]. Alfaro et al. demonstrated that adjusting the collector sp7eed and geometry significantly improves fiber orientation and uniformity [25]. Figure 2 clearly shows the setup for the electrospinning, including a syringe pump, a collector, a high voltage connection, and generated nanofibers.

2.2. Limitations of Conventional DC Electrospinning

DC electrospinning exhibits several limitations that hinder its widespread industrial application such as the accumulation of surface charges on the polymer jet leading to whipping instabilities that cause non-uniform fiber diameters, bead defects, and poor deposition control, particularly at higher production rates [20]. DC electrospinning systems typically yields only 1–4 g/h of nanofibers per needle, which is insufficient for high-volume applications such as air filtration, personal protective equipment, or large-scale biomedical scaffolds [21]. The quality of fibers in DC electrospinning is sensitive to environmental fluctuations, which necessitates process control and can be a barrier in non-laboratory settings. Figure 3 shows the process with the variables affecting the generation of nanofibers. The uniformity and reproducibility of fiber morphology are also limited by jet instabilities and charge repulsion on the collector surface, leading to heterogeneous deposition patterns, which are problematic in precision-demanding applications such as drug delivery or electronics [3].
To mitigate these limitations, alternative techniques have been developed, including alternating current (AC) electrospinning, pulsed voltage electrospinning, collectorless arrangements, and needleless configurations. Han and Steckl highlighted the potential of AC electrospinning to overcome DC-related issues by eliminating net charge buildup and enabling more uniform deposition [28]. High-speed electrospinning systems with advanced collector configurations have also shown promise in industrial settings [29].

3. Charge Generation and Transport in Electrospinning

The formation and stabilization of nanofibers in electrospinning are governed by electrical charge generation and transport phenomena. These factors influence jet initiation, elongation, and final fiber deposition, playing an especially significant role in alternating current (AC) and pulsed voltage (PV) electrospinning, where a time-varying electric field is used. Compared to traditional direct current (DC) electrospinning, AC and PV systems enable more complex and tunable charge behavior, offering improved process control and fiber quality, as it does not offer unidirectional charge buildup and no jet instabilities.

3.1. Mechanisms of Charge Generation

Charge in electrospinning is primarily introduced through solvent ionization, salt dissociation, and electrode–solution interactions, according to Collins et al. [9]. The formation of free charge carriers can arise from the following: ionizable solvents (e.g., acetic acid, formic acid), dissolved salts (e.g., sodium acetate, lithium chloride), and triboelectric charging from flow and friction at the needle walls. Hybrid systems such as dry-jet wet electrospinning offer enhanced fiber integrity and diameter control [30].
In DC systems, the continuous unidirectional field leads to a build-up of like charges on the surface of the jet, which generates Coulombic repulsion. While essential for jet elongation, this excess surface charge can also induce whipping, bending instabilities, and jet breakup, especially under high-voltage or in low-conductivity polymer systems [9,15,31].

3.2. Charge Behavior in AC Electrospinning

AC electrospinning introduces a periodically reversing electric field, which causes the polarity of the applied voltage to oscillate, typically in the range of tens to thousands of hertz. The frequent reversal of charge polarity prevents the excessive accumulation of net charge on the polymer jet. Figure 4 shows the charges in AC electrospinning process. This suppresses whipping instabilities and promotes a stable Taylor cone, facilitating smoother and more consistent fiber production [8]. The oscillating field enables the bidirectional migration of charge carriers, allowing a more uniform internal distribution of charges within the polymer solution [14]. This helps produce defect-free fibers with homogeneous morphology [12]. Since the net charge on the jet is periodically neutralized, non-conductive or grounded collectors are not strictly necessary. Fibers can deposit on insulating substrates or even in free space, creating a cloud-like nanofiber plume [10].
Stanishevsky et al. demonstrated that, by tuning waveform type, frequency, and salt concentration, the AC electrospinning of polycaprolactone (PCL) with glacial acetic acid and sodium acetate produced morphologies ranging from beadless nanofibers to uniform microfibers, with yields up to 14 g/h. The oscillating charge dynamics were crucial in achieving this level of control and throughput [11]. Figure 5 shows the charge dynamics in AC electrospinning and Pulsed voltage electrospinning.

3.3. Charge Dynamics in Pulsed Voltage Electrospinning

Pulsed voltage electrospinning applies the electric field in discrete bursts, characterized by pulse width, duty cycle, and frequency. During the “on” phase, charges accumulate and initiate jet formation. During the “off” phase, the system undergoes partial relaxation, enabling the redistribution and dissipation of charges. This intermittent pattern significantly alters electrohydrodynamic behavior. Pulsed systems prevent continuous charge buildup, which can lead to jet explosion or dielectric breakdown in DC systems. The intermittent application gives the jet time to stabilize, enhancing reproducibility [15]. Pulse parameters directly affect fiber diameter, porosity, and surface features. Mirek et al. demonstrated that tuning the pulse frequency enabled the formation of uniform, defect-free fibers with narrow diameter distributions suitable for medical textiles and encapsulation platforms [16]. The modulation of the field strength reduces the mechanical and electrostatic stress on the Taylor cone. This has been shown to minimize bead-on-string morphologies, a common issue in DC electrospinning at high voltages [16,31]. Overall, charge generation and transport mechanisms in AC and PV electrospinning provide crucial advantages over DC-based systems. They allow for better control of fiber formation, greater material compatibility, and reduced energy consumption, making these systems highly suitable for advanced applications such as drug delivery, wound healing, and sensor fabrication.

4. Innovations in Electrospinning: AC and Pulsed Voltage Techniques

Advancements in electrospinning methods have emerged to overcome the limitations of conventional direct current (DC) systems. Two up-and-coming techniques are alternating current (AC) electrospinning and pulsed voltage electrospinning, which introduce dynamic electric field modulation to enhance process stability, fiber uniformity, and production scalability. These methods not only address charge accumulation and whipping instabilities but also open new possibilities for nanofiber application in biomedical, industrial, and environmental fields [3,8,20].

4.1. AC Electrospinning Mechanisms and Advantages

AC electrospinning replaces the unidirectional DC field with an oscillating electric field, typically sinusoidal or modulated in waveform. The periodic field reversal contributes to improved jet stability, uniform fiber deposition, and minimized bead formation [6,11,12]. Han and Steckl demonstrated that the dynamic modulation inherent in AC systems improves fiber morphology and promotes stable jet formation across a wider range of voltages and flow rates [28]. Additionally, the oscillating electric field supports collectorless fiber deposition, often described as a “nanofibrous smoke,” driven by electric wind effects [12]. This enables the formation of free-floating fibers in air, ideal for 3D fibrous structures and bulk fiber harvesting. A key strength of AC electrospinning is its high productivity, for example, Pokorný et al. achieved production rates exceeding 23 g/h using optimized AC conditions—nearly an order of magnitude higher than conventional DC methods, which typically yield 2–4 g/h per needle [8]. Furthermore, parameters such as frequency, amplitude, and waveform shape significantly affect fiber characteristics. Kulichikhin et al. reported that sinusoidal waveforms, due to their smooth and continuous variation in polarity, enhance cyclic acceleration and deceleration of the jet, promoting fiber stretching and alignment along the field direction [32], resulting in more uniform and defect-free nanofibers. In contrast, square waveforms apply voltage in abrupt transitions between high and low states, the sharp onsets of the electric field promote rapid jet initiation and faster cyclic loading, which can increase fiber throughput but may introduce higher mechanical stress on the jet, potentially reducing alignment if not properly controlled. The frequency of these waveforms also plays a critical role: low-frequency signals may cause jet collapse or incomplete fiber formation, whereas higher frequencies allow the jet to respond to an effective RMS field, stabilizing the process under alternating conditions. A simple setup for AC electrospinning is shown in Figure 6.
AC electrospinning also facilitates the production of aligned fibers, a feature for applications in tissue engineering and sensor applications. The time-varying electric field supports consistent fiber orientation across high-speed rotating collectors [11]. Yazgan et al. reported improved alignment and deposition control using AC fields in aligned scaffold fabrication [20].

4.2. Pulsed Voltage Electrospinning: Controlled Precision

Pulsed voltage electrospinning applies intermittent high-voltage pulses to the polymer solution, offering precise control over jet initiation and stop. Unlike continuous fields, this modulation allows the jet to relax between pulses, reducing mechanical instabilities and promoting consistent fiber formation [16]. Pulse parameters such as frequency, pulse width, and duty cycle directly affect the jet’s behavior, morphology, and fiber diameter. Han and Steckl noted that pulsed systems offer enhanced control over charge delivery, contributing to fiber smoothness and defect suppression, particularly under challenging environmental or material conditions [28]. Li et al. demonstrated that decreasing the duty cycle leads to thinner fibers and reduced diameter variability. In their study, pulsed systems generated fibers with diameters up to 30% smaller compared to DC analogs under the same voltage and flow conditions [15]. This precision makes PV systems ideal for applications like drug delivery, where fiber dimensions influence release kinetics, and wound healing, where structural consistency impacts tissue integration. Another benefit of PV electrospinning is the ability to create chopped or segmented fibers. Hu X et al. used tailored pulse durations to fabricate nanofibers of controlled lengths, which are particularly suited for injectable scaffolds or composite reinforcements [33]. A simple setup of Pulsed Voltage electrospinning is shown in Figure 7.
Recent studies combining numerical simulations and experimental diagnostics have supported the optimization of pulsed systems. Mirek et al. [16] correlated meniscus shape and pulse frequency with fiber morphology and bead density, while FEM models from Di Lorenzo et al. provided insights into electric field distribution in pulsed setups [17].

4.3. Factors Influencing Fiber Morphology

Although this work emphasizes waveform effects, it is important to recognize that fiber morphology is also shaped by core electrospinning parameters such as solution viscosity, polymer concentration, and collector configuration. Suboptimal viscosity or conductivity can lead to jet breakage or bead formation, while balanced rheological properties ensure stable fiber formation [1,2]. Typically, viscosity in the range of 0.1–2.0 Pa·s and moderate conductivity favor uniform fibers [23]. Recent studies also demonstrate how waveform modulation, when combined with proper material tuning, enhances fiber alignment and reduces diameter variability [13,34]. A detailed structural analysis, including morphology images and quantitative metrics, would further strengthen waveform-focused evaluations in future studies. The use of biased AC fields—superimposing a DC offset on AC voltage—was found to significantly improve fiber alignment and reduce diameter variability [35].

4.4. Comparative Advantages and Application Outlook

In addition to waveform engineering, several other strategies have been developed to enhance electrospinning productivity and scalability [36]. Multi-spinneret systems allow parallel jet formation, increasing fiber yield, though they often suffer from inter-jet interference and require careful field management [37]. Needleless electrospinning eliminates spinnerets entirely by using free liquid surfaces (e.g., rotating drums or wires), enabling a high-throughput production of nanofibers and improved system durability [7,8]. High-speed electrospinning techniques employ rapidly rotating collectors or substrates to collect aligned fibers efficiently at industrial scales [25]. Gas-assisted electrospinning, where compressed air or inert gas supports jet initiation and stretching, improves fiber uniformity and allows lower voltage operation [36]. While these methods target throughput and scalability, they can be further enhanced when combined with waveform-controlled high-voltage supplies, offering precise control over jet behavior, charge distribution, and deposition patterns. While both AC and PV electrospinning address critical limitations of DC methods, they offer complementary advantages. AC systems excel in throughput, collectorless operation, and fiber alignment. They are well-suited for high-volume manufacturing, air filtration media, and structural textiles. Electrospun inorganic nanofibers such as TiO2 have also shown promising electrochemical behavior, attributed to their high surface area and crystalline control [38]. Pulsed voltage systems provide superior control over fiber morphology, diameter, and surface structure. These systems are ideal for biomedical applications, precision drug carriers, and functional composites. The introduction of these techniques has broadened the landscape of electrospinning, enabled targeted customization, and paved the way for industrial-scale, application-specific nanofiber production.
Beyond filtration and environmental applications, electrospun nanofibers are increasingly being integrated into hydrogel-based scaffolds for tissue engineering. In particular, composite fibrous hydrogels created via electrospinning show enhanced mechanical properties, porosity, and bioactivity, which are critical for regenerating complex tissues such as cartilage and bone. De Mori et al. highlighted the use of electrospun fibers in multi-layered and fiber-reinforced hydrogels tailored for osteochondral repair, underscoring their potential for stratified tissue reconstruction [39].

5. Quantitative Performance Metrics and Efficiency Analysis

The performance and efficiency of other electrospinning techniques, especially AC and pulsed electrospinning, have been evaluated and benchmarked against traditional DC electrospinning. These evaluations compare the characteristics of the produced fibers’ morphology, diameter, porosity, and alignment. Studies by Pokorný et al. have reported production rates up to 23.6 g/h with AC electrospinning using optimized sinusoidal waveforms and high-frequency applications [8]. This high production rate is attributed to reduced surface charge accumulation, stabilizing multiple jets, and higher voltage and electric field [12]. Fiber quality, including uniform fiber diameter, porosity, and surface smoothness, is significantly improved in the AC and pulsed electrospinning process. Kulichikhin et al. reported that sinusoidal fields reduce bead formation and fiber uniformity, which makes it suitable for textiles and filtration applications [32]. Pulsed electrospinning also demonstrates superior control over fiber morphology by allowing periodic jet relaxation between pulses. The pulsed process reduces fiber diameter variability by up to 30%, which makes the generated fibers suitable for precision biomedical applications, such as drug delivery scaffolds. The duty cycle, pulse width, and frequency are tunable to adjust fiber characteristics with reproducibility. Li et al. demonstrated that AC setups reduce morphological irregularities and promote consistent fiber mats suitable for biomedical scaffolds [15]. In pulsed voltage electrospinning, the intermittent application of voltage minimizes the charge accumulation and allows jet relaxation, which reduces the bead formation by 50% as compared to the DC process [9]. With PV electrospinning, ultrathin fibers with diameters reduced by 20–30% can be achieved by the optimization of pulsed modulation parameters [15,33]. Hu et al. observed that adjusting pulse duration and frequency results in highly reproducible, defect-free fibers for high-resolution applications [33]. Kulichikhin et al. observed that sinusoidal waveforms yield more porous and aligned structures, essential for tissue scaffolds and filtration [32]. Moreover, the collectorless capability of AC systems expands the versatility of nanofiber deposition, supporting 3D and bulk structures [8].
The key metrics across DC, AC, and PV electrospinning systems are summarized in Table 1 and comparative overview is provided in Table 2.
DC electrospinning typically yields randomly oriented fibers with moderate mechanical strength and elasticity but is prone to bead formation due to steady charge buildup. AC electrospinning, on the other hand, promotes better fiber alignment and fewer structural defects due to periodic charge reversal, often resulting in enhanced tensile strength and modulus in aligned mats [37]. Pulsed voltage electrospinning allows precise control over jet lifetime and fiber deposition through adjustable pulse widths and frequencies. This leads to more uniform fiber morphology and improved mechanical integrity in layered or composite structures [34]. Despite these advances, systematic mechanical property evaluations, such as tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and elongation at break, are still lacking for AC and PV-based systems, highlighting an important avenue for future research.

6. Applications of AC and Pulsed Voltage Electrospun Nanofibers

The evolution of electrospinning from conventional DC to advanced AC and pulsed voltage techniques has unlocked a range of novel applications by enabling finer control over fiber morphology, improved structural consistency, and increased production rates. These innovations allow for the creation of application-specific nanofibers with tunable characteristics such as diameter, porosity, alignment, and surface functionalization, which are critical in biomedical, environmental, energy, and industrial domains.

6.1. Biomedical Applications

Owing their structural similarity to the natural extracellular matrix (ECM), electrospun nanofibers have demonstrated considerable suitability in tissue engineering, drug delivery, and wound healing. AC electrospinning is particularly advantageous in producing aligned fibers that promote cell guidance and tissue regeneration. The collectorless capability of AC systems also allows for 3D deposition and bulk scaffold formation, which is beneficial for creating layered or volumetric constructs for orthopedic or neural repair [8,11]. Pulsed voltage electrospinning allows precise control of fiber diameter and porosity, which are critical factors in drug release kinetics. Electrospun nanofibers provide biocompatible support for tissue regeneration and drug delivery [40]. Studies conducted by Li et al. and Baba et al. found that PV systems can produce chopping or segmented fibers loaded with medicinal substances, facilitating regulated medication release in wound dressings or implantable systems [15,41]. The accuracy of pulsed electrospinning facilitates uniform fiber generation, especially with sensitive biopolymers like gelatin and chitosan, hence enhancing applicability in bioactive scaffolds [16]. The use of nanofibers is increasing in tissue engineering, drug delivery, biological sensing and wound dressing. Figure 8 shows various application fields in nanfiber utilization.
Piezoelectric scaffolds fabricated by electrospinning provide a route for electrical stimulation in regenerative medicine [43]. Electrospun nanofiber scaffolds incorporating bioactive agents are gaining attention in regenerative medicine. For example, Shaban et al. demonstrated that cellulose acetate nanofibers loaded with hydroxyapatite and plant-based bioactives like berberine and Moghat extract supported osteoblast proliferation, mineralization, and signaling pathway modulation—highlighting the synergy between material composition and scaffold performance in bone regeneration applications [44].

6.2. Filtration and Protective Materials

High-porosity electrospun mats are increasingly utilized in air and liquid filtration, as well as in personal protective equipment. The increased productivity of AC electrospinning makes it suitable for the generation of expansive nanofiber mats suitable for face masks, respirators, and industrial filters. Charge-driven patterning enables the creation of 3D nanostructures with improved pore connectivity [45]. Research has shown that fibers generated by AC techniques display consistent diameter distributions and reduced pressure drop, which are essential for optimizing filtration efficiency while maintaining breathability. Pulsed voltage electrospinning, through precise fiber diameter control, supports the fabrication of multi-layered membranes with customized pore structures for selective filtration, oil–water separation, and particulate capture [8].

6.3. Sensors and Wearables

Electrospun fibers’ huge surface area and adjustable conductivity make them great platforms for chemical and biosensing. By using pulsed electrospinning to tightly control placement, functional nanoparticles or dopants have been embedded into fibers, hence enhancing sensor responsiveness and reproducibility. Similarly, AC electrospinning facilitates the deposition of conductive polymer nanofibers on non-traditional substrates such as textiles, enabling the development of flexible and wearable electronic sensors [28,46].

6.4. Energy Storage and Conversion

Given their great ionic conductivity and porous structure, electrospun nanofibers are effective components in battery separators, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. For high-temperature or electrochemical settings, AC electrospinning is particularly beneficial in generating ceramic composite nanofibers [47]. Photovoltaic systems provide the necessary precision to optimize porosity and fiber diameter in electrodes, which in turn affects ion transport and electrochemical performance. Researchers have used pulsed voltage systems to design carbon nanofibers with gradient porosity, tailored for improved energy density and charge–discharge rates in lithium-ion batteries [48].

6.5. Environmental and Agricultural Uses

While electrospun nonwoven materials have been proposed for agricultural applications—such as moisture-retaining mats, biodegradable mulches, or controlled-release agrochemical carriers—their practical use is currently limited due to challenges in scalability, cost, and mechanical durability. Most applications remain at the research or pilot-scale level, and further developments in high-throughput electrospinning and robust fiber formulations are required for field deployment [49,50,51]. Waveform-modulated nanofibers have also been applied in pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, with efficient antibiotic removal reported [52].

7. Challenges, Limitations, and Future Outlook

Although AC and pulsed electrospinning offer several advantages, these techniques still have some technical and practical challenges that limit their widespread adoption in industries and research. Understanding these limitations is essential for guiding future innovations and optimizing process design, application integration, and material selection.

7.1. Technical Challenges

In AC electrospinning, the sensitivity of the parameters such as waveshape, frequency, and voltage amplitude is the main challenge. While sinusoidal waveforms have shown favorable results in producing uniform fibers, other waveforms, like triangular or square, may introduce instabilities if not optimized [36]. PV systems offer unmatched control over fiber morphology, but their implementation often requires specialized high-speed switching circuits such as IGBT or MOSFET-based pulse generators. These components add cost, design complexity, and potential reliability concerns during long-term operation. Additionally, the optimization of pulse parameters (duty cycle, frequency, voltage) must be material-specific and can be time consuming without automated feedback systems [15]. Scalability remains a challenge in pulsed electrospinning. Producing uniform fiber formation over large areas or multi-nozzle setups while preserving fine control is still under development. The intermittent nature of the process may also introduce cycle-related artifacts in high-throughput production.

7.2. Material Compatibility and Process Stability

Both AC and PV systems require the careful consideration of polymer solution properties, particularly conductivity, viscosity, and evaporation rate. High-viscosity or low-conductivity materials may fail to form stable jets under alternating or pulsed fields, limiting the choice of usable polymers without chemical modification or additives [24]. Environmental parameters such as humidity and temperature also affect fiber consistency. In collectorless AC setups, for example, ambient airflow can easily disturb the free-floating jet. In PV electrospinning, delays in solvent evaporation between pulses may lead to fiber fusion or inconsistent mat structures.

7.3. Standardization and Modeling Gaps

Unlike conventional DC electrospinning, there is no universally adopted standard for AC or PV electrospinning process, which makes the comparative analysis difficult. Research groups use different frequencies (ranging from Hz to kHz), electrode geometries, and pulse definitions, which complicates benchmarking and reproducibility [8]. The development of multi-physics models integrating electrohydrodynamic behavior, charge relaxation, and jet aerodynamics under time-varying fields is essential. Progress in finite element modeling (FEM) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is already providing insight, but more real-time experimental validation is needed to advance design reliability [17].

7.4. Future Outlook

Despite these limitations, the future of AC and PV electrospinning is highly promising. Future research is likely to focus on the following:
  • AI-assisted process control: Integrating machine learning with real-time imaging and sensor data to dynamically tune pulse/AC parameters for defect-free fiber production.
  • Scalable multi-nozzle systems: Designing multi-spinneret AC or PV platforms with synchronized control to maintain throughput without compromising fiber uniformity.
  • Green solvents and biopolymers: Developing material systems that are compatible with non-toxic, environmentally friendly solvents under AC and PV conditions.
  • Hybrid techniques: Combining AC or pulsed fields with magnetic, acoustic, or thermal fields to improve jet guidance, fiber alignment, or functionalization [53].
  • Standardization initiatives: Establishing common metrics and test protocols to enable the reproducibility and industry certification of electrospun materials.
Recent studies have increasingly focused on enhancing waveform-based electrospinning through innovations like programmable waveform generators, collectorless AC systems, and AI-assisted control algorithms. Machine learning frameworks are emerging to predict optimal spinning parameters based on morphology targets [54], for example, high frequency AC electrospinning has demonstrated a threefold yield improvement without compromising fiber uniformity. Similarly, pulsed systems have been used to fabricate uniform, drug-loaded fibers with minimal thermal degradation. These advancements point toward a new generation of smart electrospinning platforms that combine waveform engineering with real-time monitoring, enabling scalable, high-performance nanofiber manufacturing.
Ultimately, AC and pulsed voltage electrospinning are poised to revolutionize nanofiber production by offering application-tailored precision, higher throughput, and expanded material compatibility. With continued interdisciplinary collaboration and investment in scalable technologies, these approaches can bridge the gap between lab-scale innovation and industrial-scale implementation.

8. Conclusions

The emergence of alternating current (AC) and pulsed voltage (PV) electrospinning indicates a transformative change, facilitating increased throughput, improved fiber homogeneity, and superior control over jet dynamics. These advances mitigate major limitations of conventional techniques, including charge accumulation, fiber irregularity, and low productivity, which have traditionally blocked large-scale and high-precision nanofiber synthesis. AC electrospinning facilitates symmetrical charge reversal, improved jet stability, limits bead formation, and enables collectorless arrangements. Its exceptional scalability and capacity to generate aligned or bulk fiber structures make it highly suitable for industrial applications, including filtration, textiles, and tissue scaffolds. Direct-writing approaches facilitate spatial control and industrial alignment of nanofibers [55]. PV electrospinning utilizes periodic regulation of the electric field to achieve precise control over fiber shape and porosity. This feature makes it particularly advantageous for biomedical applications in which accurate structural characteristics are essential. Quantitative performance metrics demonstrate that AC and PV systems surpass standard DC configurations in terms of production yield, energy efficiency, and application specificity. Moreover, their compatibility with various polymers, including natural biopolymers, enhances their applicability in domains such as medication delivery, wound healing, environmental cleanup, and smart textiles. However, challenges continue to exist, such as the necessity for process standardization, scalable multi-nozzle systems, and advanced modeling tools to forecast jet behavior in dynamic fields. Future endeavors should concentrate on AI-facilitated process optimization, amalgamation with hybrid stimuli (such as acoustic or magnetic fields), and sustainable material systems. Due to continuous improvements in equipment design, modeling, and process control, AC and pulsed voltage electrospinning are set to emerge as next-generation platforms for nanofiber production, connecting laboratory innovation with industrial-scale application.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.C.; methodology, Y.A.S.; validation, Y.A.S.; formal analysis, Y.A.S.; investigation, Y.A.S.; resources, Y.A.S. and R.C.; data curation, Y.A.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.A.S.; writing—review and editing, Y.A.S.; supervision, R.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Li, D.; Xia, Y. Electrospinning of Nanofibers: Reinventing the Wheel? Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 1151–1170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Ramakrishna, S.; Fujihara, K.; Teo, W.E.; Yong, T.; Ma, Z.; Ramaseshan, R. Electrospun Nanofibers: Solving Global Issues. Mater. Today 2006, 9, 40–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Greiner, A.; Wendorff, J.H. Electrospinning: A Fascinating Method for the Preparation of Ultrathin Fibers. Angew. Chem.-Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 5670–5703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Zaengl, W.S.; Kuffel, E. High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, 2nd ed.; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  5. Di Lorenzo, G.; Stracqualursi, E.; Araneo, R.; Pozio, A.; Rinaldi, A.; Hein, L.A. Assessment of the Electrostatic Field Uniformity Within an Electrospinning Device. In Proceedings of the 24th EEEIC International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and 8th I and CPS Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe, EEEIC/I and CPS Europe 2024, Rome, Italy, 17–20 June 2024; Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2024. [Google Scholar]
  6. Maheshwari, S.; Chetwani, N.; Hsueh-Chia, C. Alternating Current Electrospraying. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2009, 48, 9358–9368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Cselko, R.; Pozman, R.A.; Szekely, L. Electrospinning with Non-DC Voltages. In Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference, EIC 2023, Quebec City, QC, Canada, 18–21 June 2023; Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  8. Shi, S.; Abbas, Z.; Zhao, X.; Liang, J.; Wang, D. Nib-Assisted Coaxial Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing for Nanowires Deposition. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Collins, G.; Federici, J.; Imura, Y.; Catalani, L.H. Charge Generation, Charge Transport, and Residual Charge in the Electrospinning of Polymers: A Review of Issues and Complications. J. Appl. Phys. 2012, 111, 044701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Kessick, R.; Fenn, J.; Tepper, G. The Use of AC Potentials in Electrospraying and Electrospinning Processes. Polymer 2004, 45, 2981–2984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Stanishevsky, A. Electrospinning Using AC Electric Fields. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2025, e2400907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Kalous, T.; Pokorný, P.; Lukáš, D.; Sanetrník, F. Electric Wind Phenomena During AC Colectorless Electrospinning; Tanger Ltd.: Ostrava, Czech Republic, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  13. Sivan, M.; Madheswaran, D.; Valtera, J.; Kostakova, E.K.; Lukas, D. Alternating Current Electrospinning: The Impacts of Various High-Voltage Signal Shapes and Frequencies on the Spinnability and Productivity of Polycaprolactone Nanofibers. Mater. Des. 2022, 213, 110308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Nguyen, T.D.; Roh, S.; Nguyen, M.T.N.; Lee, J.S. Structural Control of Nanofibers According to Electrospinning Process Conditions and Their Applications. Micromachines 2023, 14, 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Li, K.; Wang, Y.; Xie, G.; Kang, J.; He, H.; Wang, K.; Liu, Y. Solution Electrospinning with a Pulsed Electric Field. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Mirek, A.; Korycka, P.; Grzeczkowicz, M.; Lewińska, D. Polymer Fibers Electrospun Using Pulsed Voltage. Mater. Des. 2019, 183, 108106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Di Lorenzo, G.; Stracqualursi, E.; Araneo, R.; Pozio, A.; Rinaldi, A.; Hein, L.A. 3D FEM Simulation of Electrospinning Machine for the Study of Full-Scale Electrostatic Field on the Electrohydrodynamic Process. In Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2023 IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe, EEEIC/I and CPS Europe 2023, Madrid, Spain, 6–9 June 2023; Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  18. Yin, J.; Gao, L.; Xu, L. The Mechanism of Electrospinning Device. Mech. Eng. 2021, 43, 489–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Reneker, D.H.; Yarin, A.L.; Fong, H.; Koombhongse, S. Bending Instability of Electrically Charged Liquid Jets of Polymer Solutions in Electrospinning. J. Appl. Phys. 2000, 87, 4531–4547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Yazgan, G.; Dmitriev, R.I.; Tyagi, V.; Jenkins, J.; Rotaru, G.M.; Rottmar, M.; Rossi, R.M.; Toncelli, C.; Papkovsky, D.B.; Maniura-Weber, K.; et al. Steering Surface Topographies of Electrospun Fibers: Understanding the Mechanisms. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Dayal, P.; Kyu, T. Dynamics and Morphology Development in Electrospun Fibers Driven by Concentration Sweeps. Phys. Fluids 2007, 19, 107106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Shang, Z.; Wycisk, R.; Pintauro, P. Electrospun Composite Proton-Exchange and Anion-Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells. Energies 2021, 14, 6709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. McKee, M.G.; Wilkes, G.L.; Colby, R.H.; Long, T.E. Correlations of Solution Rheology with Electrospun Fiber Formation of Linear and Branched Polyesters. Macromolecules 2004, 37, 1760–1767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Zuo, W.; Zhu, M.; Yang, W.; Yu, H.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, Y. Experimental Study on Relationship between Jet Instability and Formation of Beaded Fibers during Electrospinning. Polym. Eng. Sci. 2005, 45, 704–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Alfaro De Prá, M.A.; Ribeiro-do-Valle, R.M.; Maraschin, M.; Veleirinho, B. Effect of Collector Design on the Morphological Properties of Polycaprolactone Electrospun Fibers. Mater. Lett. 2017, 193, 154–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Fromager, B.; Marhuenda, E.; Louis, B.; Bakalara, N.; Cambedouzou, J.; Cornu, D. Recent Advances in Electrospun Fibers for Biological Applications. Macromol. 2023, 3, 569–613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Forgie, J.R.P.; Leclinche, F.; Dréan, E.; Dolez, P.I. Electrospinning of High-Performance Nanofibres: State of the Art and Insights into the Path Forward. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Han, D.; Steckl, A.J. Coaxial Electrospinning Formation of Complex Polymer Fibers and Their Applications. Chempluschem 2019, 84, 1453–1497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Garcia, C.; Trendafilova, I. A Novel Triboelectric Nanogenerator Based on Electrospun Nanofibers and Its Application as a Self-Powered Nanosensor. In Nanosensors for Smart Cities; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 117–128. ISBN 9780128198704. [Google Scholar]
  30. Bazbouz, M.B.; Taylor, M.; Baker, D.; Ries, M.E.; Goswami, P. Dry-Jet Wet Electrospinning of Native Cellulose Microfibers with Macroporous Structures from Ionic Liquids. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Reneker, D.H.; Yarin, A.L. Electrospinning Jets and Polymer Nanofibers. Polymer 2008, 49, 2387–2425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Kulichikhin, V.G.; Skvortsov, I.Y.; Subbotin, A.V.; Kotomin, S.V.; Malkin, A.Y. A Novel Technique for Fiber Formation: Mechanotropic Spinning-Principle and Realization. Polymers 2018, 10, 856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Hu, X.; Liu, S.; Zhou, G.; Huang, Y.; Xie, Z.; Jing, X. Electrospinning of Polymeric Nanofibers for Drug Delivery Applications. J. Control. Release 2014, 185, 12–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Bartkowiak, A.; Grzeczkowicz, M.; Lewińska, D. The Effects of Pulsed Electrospinning Process Variables on the Size of Polymer Fibers Established with a 23 Factorial Design. Polymers 2024, 16, 2352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Sarkar, S.; Deevi, S.; Tepper, G. Biased AC Electrospinning of Aligned Polymer Nanofibers. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2007, 28, 1034–1039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Farkas, B.; Balogh, A.; Farkas, A.; Marosi, G.; Nagy, Z.K. Frequency and Waveform Dependence of Alternating Current Electrospinning and Their Uses for Drug Dissolution Enhancement. Int. J. Pharm. 2020, 586, 119593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Persano, L.; Camposeo, A.; Tekmen, C.; Pisignano, D. Industrial Upscaling of Electrospinning and Applications of Polymer Nanofibers: A Review. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 2013, 298, 504–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Reddy, M.V.; Jose, R.; Teng, T.H.; Chowdari, B.V.R.; Ramakrishna, S. Preparation and Electrochemical Studies of Electrospun TiO2 Nanofibers and Molten Salt Method Nanoparticles. Electrochim. Acta 2010, 55, 3109–3117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. De Mori, A.; Fernández, M.P.; Blunn, G.; Tozzi, G.; Roldo, M. 3D Printing and Electrospinning of Composite Hydrogels for Cartilage and Bone Tissue Engineering. Polymers 2018, 10, 285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Das, R.; Burbery, N.J. Trends and Developments in the Manufacturing of Polymer Nanofibrils with the Electrospinning Technique. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2014, 446–447, 1298–1303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Parham, S.; Kharazi, A.Z.; Bakhsheshi-Rad, H.R.; Ghayour, H.; Ismail, A.F.; Nur, H.; Berto, F. Electrospun Nano-Fibers for Biomedical and Tissue Engineering Applications: A Comprehensive Review. Materials 2020, 13, 2153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Shahriar, S.M.S.; Mondal, J.; Hasan, M.N.; Revuri, V.; Lee, D.Y.; Lee, Y.K. Electrospinning Nanofibers for Therapeutics Delivery. Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Azimi, B.; Milazzo, M.; Lazzeri, A.; Berrettini, S.; Uddin, M.J.; Qin, Z.; Buehler, M.J.; Danti, S. Electrospinning Piezoelectric Fibers for Biocompatible Devices. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2020, 9, e1901287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Shaban, N.Z.; Kenawy, M.Y.; Taha, N.A.; Abd El-Latif, M.M.; Ghareeb, D.A. Cellulose Acetate Nanofibers: Incorporating Hydroxyapatite (Ha), Ha/Berberine or Ha/Moghat Composites, as Scaffolds to Enhance in Vitro Osteoporotic Bone Regeneration. Polymers 2021, 13, 4140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Bonino, C.A.; Efimenko, K.; Jeong, S.I.; Krebs, M.D.; Alsberg, E.; Khan, S.A. Three-Dimensional Electrospun Alginate Nanofiber Mats via Tailored Charge Repulsions. Small 2012, 8, 1928–1936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Liu, Y.; Hao, M.; Chen, Z.; Liu, L.; Liu, Y.; Yang, W.; Ramakrishna, S. A Review on Recent Advances in Application of Electrospun Nanofiber Materials as Biosensors. Curr. Opin. Biomed. Eng. 2020, 13, 174–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Gao, Z.; Zhou, Y.; Zhang, J.; Foroughi, J.; Peng, S.; Baughman, R.H.; Wang, Z.L.; Wang, C.H. Advanced Energy Harvesters and Energy Storage for Powering Wearable and Implantable Medical Devices. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, e2404492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Rao, X.; Lou, Y.; Zhao, J.; Chen, J.; Qiu, Y.; Wu, T.; Zhong, S.; Wang, H.; Wu, L. Carbon Nanofibers Derived from Carbonization of Electrospinning Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as High Performance Anode Material for Lithium Ion Batteries. J. Porous Mater. 2023, 30, 403–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Zhang, W.; He, Z.; Han, Y.; Jiang, Q.; Zhan, C.; Zhang, K.; Li, Z.; Zhang, R. Structural Design and Environmental Applications of Electrospun Nanofibers. Compos. Part. A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2020, 137, 106009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Wałach, W.; Oleszko-Torbus, N.; Utrata-Wesołek, A.; Bochenek, M.; Kijeńska-Gawrońska, E.; Górecka, Ż.; Święszkowski, W.; Dworak, A. Processing of (Co)Poly(2-Oxazoline)s by Electrospinning and Extrusion from Melt and the Postprocessing Properties of the (Co)Polymers. Polymers 2020, 12, 295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Liu, S.; Zhao, S.; Fan, F.; Zhang, B.-T.; Wang, S. Magnetically Separable and Recyclable Lanthanum/Iron Co-Modified Attapulgite: A Sustainable Option to Efficiently Control Phosphate Loading. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 348, 131294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Fang, J.; Wang, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhang, I.Y.; Huang, R. Application of Different Waveforms of Pulsed Current in the Classical Electro-Cocatalytic Process for Effective Removal of Sulfamethoxazole: Oxidation Mechanisms. Catalysts 2024, 14, 532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Makinen, J.; Schavikin, J.; Osterberg, H.; Valoppi, F.; Nikolaev, D.; Laidmae, I.; Heinamaki, J.; Salmi, A.; Haeggstrom, E. The Role of Acoustic Streaming in Ultrasound-Enhanced Electrospinning—A FEM Simulation Study. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium, IUS, Venice, Italy, 10–13 October 2022; IEEE Computer Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  54. Shabani, A.; Al, G.A.; Berri, N.; Castro-Dominguez, B.; Leese, H.S.; Martinez-Hernandez, U. Electrospinning Technology, Machine Learning, and Control Approaches: A Review. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2025, 27, 2401353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ye, D.; Ding, Y.; Duan, Y.; Su, J.; Yin, Z.; Huang, Y.A. Large-Scale Direct-Writing of Aligned Nanofibers for Flexible Electronics. Small 2018, 14, e1703521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Processes 13 02048 g001
Figure 1. Process of electrospinning, Adapted with permission from Nguyen et al. [14].
Figure 1. Process of electrospinning, Adapted with permission from Nguyen et al. [14].
Processes 13 02048 g001
Processes 13 02048 g002
Figure 2. Generation of nanofibers, adapted from Bénédicte Fromager et al. [26].
Figure 2. Generation of nanofibers, adapted from Bénédicte Fromager et al. [26].
Processes 13 02048 g002
Processes 13 02048 g003
Figure 3. Electrospinning setup and variables. Adapted from Forgie et al. [27].
Figure 3. Electrospinning setup and variables. Adapted from Forgie et al. [27].
Processes 13 02048 g003
Processes 13 02048 g004
Figure 4. Illustration of charges in AC electrospinning.
Figure 4. Illustration of charges in AC electrospinning.
Processes 13 02048 g004
Processes 13 02048 g005
Figure 5. Charge generation and transport in electrospinning.
Figure 5. Charge generation and transport in electrospinning.
Processes 13 02048 g005
Processes 13 02048 g006
Figure 6. Setup for AC electrospinning.
Figure 6. Setup for AC electrospinning.
Processes 13 02048 g006
Processes 13 02048 g007
Figure 7. Setup for pulsed voltage electrospinning.
Figure 7. Setup for pulsed voltage electrospinning.
Processes 13 02048 g007
Processes 13 02048 g008
Figure 8. Nanofibers in biomedical fields. Adapted from Shahriar et al. [42].
Figure 8. Nanofibers in biomedical fields. Adapted from Shahriar et al. [42].
Processes 13 02048 g008
Table 1. Electrospinning variables and their effects.
Table 1. Electrospinning variables and their effects.
ParameterOptimal Range/ValueEffect on Electrospinning
Viscosity0.1–2.0 Pa·sStable jet, smooth fibers prevents beads and clogging
Conductivity10–1000 µS/cmEnhanced jet stretching, thinner fibers, and very high conductivity cause instability
Surface Tension20–40 mN/mFacilitates jet initiation; balance needed to avoid beads
Temperature20–25 °CControls evaporation rate; influences fiber diameter and morphology
Relative Humidity30–50%Affects fiber porosity and drying; high RH increases porosity
Table 2. Comparative overview of electrospinning techniques DC vs. AC vs. pulsed electrospinning.
Table 2. Comparative overview of electrospinning techniques DC vs. AC vs. pulsed electrospinning.
ParameterDC ElectrospinningAC ElectrospinningPulsed Voltage Electrospinning
Electric Field TypeConstantAlternatingPulsed (intermittent)
Typical Fiber Yield2–4 g/hUp to 23.6 g/hModerate (pulse-dependent)
Fiber Morphology ControlModerateHigh (alignment, porosity)Very high (diameter, porosity)
Bead FormationCommonReducedGreatly reduced
Jet StabilityLowHighHigh
Collector RequirementConductiveCollectorless possibleConductive or time-synced
Energy EfficiencyModerateHighHigh
Application SuitabilityGeneral purposeBiomedical, textiles, filtrationDrug delivery, sensors, precision use
Fiber AlignmentPoor to moderateExcellentGood to excellent
Diameter VariabilityHighLowVery low
ScalabilityHigh (allows multiple jets)Moderate (limited by pulse rate and jet re-initiation time)Moderate (limited by single-jet setup and inter-jet interference in multi-needle systems)
System ComplexityHigher (requires waveform generators and high frequency AC power supplies)Moderate (requires pulse generator and switching circuitLow(simple HV power supply, widely available)
Application SuitabilityFiltration, aligned fiber mats, large scale scaffoldsDrug delivery, segmented fibersBiomedical scaffolds, drug delivery, filtration membranes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Al Saif, Y.; Cselkó, R. Revolutionizing Electrospinning: A Review of Alternating Current and Pulsed Voltage Techniques for Nanofiber Production. Processes 2025, 13, 2048. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072048

AMA Style

Al Saif Y, Cselkó R. Revolutionizing Electrospinning: A Review of Alternating Current and Pulsed Voltage Techniques for Nanofiber Production. Processes. 2025; 13(7):2048. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072048

Chicago/Turabian Style

Al Saif, Yasir, and Richárd Cselkó. 2025. "Revolutionizing Electrospinning: A Review of Alternating Current and Pulsed Voltage Techniques for Nanofiber Production" Processes 13, no. 7: 2048. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072048

APA Style

Al Saif, Y., & Cselkó, R. (2025). Revolutionizing Electrospinning: A Review of Alternating Current and Pulsed Voltage Techniques for Nanofiber Production. Processes, 13(7), 2048. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072048

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop