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Review

Research Progress and Prospects on Hydrogen Damage in Welds of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Pipelines

by
Jiuqing Ban
1,2,*,
Xiaopeng Yan
3,4,*,
Bin Song
1,2,
Song Deng
3,4,
Hua Wu
1,2,
Yongfan Tang
1,2 and
Wen Yin
3,4
1
Natural Gas Research Institute, PetroChina Southwest Oil and Gas Field Company, Chengdu 610213, China
2
Key Laboratory of Natural Gas Quality Control and Energy Measurement for State Market Regulation, Chengdu 610213, China
3
School of Energy, School of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
4
CNPC-CZU Innovation Alliance, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2023, 11(11), 3180; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113180
Submission received: 5 October 2023 / Revised: 1 November 2023 / Accepted: 2 November 2023 / Published: 7 November 2023
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Abstract

:
Hydrogen energy represents a crucial pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality and is a pivotal facet of future strategic emerging industries. The safe and efficient transportation of hydrogen is a key link in the entire chain development of the hydrogen energy industry’s “production, storage, and transportation”. Mixing hydrogen into natural gas pipelines for transportation is the potential best way to achieve large-scale, long-distance, safe, and efficient hydrogen transportation. Welds are identified as the vulnerable points in natural gas pipelines, and compatibility between hydrogen-doped natural gas and existing pipeline welds is a critical technical challenge that affects the global-scale transportation of hydrogen energy. Therefore, this article systematically discusses the construction and weld characteristics of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines, the research status of hydrogen damage mechanism, and mechanical property strengthening methods of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds, and points out the future development direction of hydrogen damage mechanism research in hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds. The research results show that: ① Currently, there is a need for comprehensive research on the degradation of mechanical properties in welds made from typical pipe materials on a global scale. It is imperative to systematically elucidate the mechanism of mechanical property degradation due to conventional and hydrogen-induced damage in welds of high-pressure hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines worldwide. ② The deterioration of mechanical properties in welds of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines is influenced by various components, including hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. It is necessary to reveal the mechanism of mechanical property deterioration of pipeline welds under the joint participation of multiple damage mechanisms under multi-component gas conditions. ③ Establishing a fundamental database of mechanical properties for typical pipeline steel materials under hydrogen-doped natural gas conditions globally is imperative, to form a method for strengthening the mechanical properties of typical high-pressure hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds. ④ It is essential to promptly develop relevant standards for hydrogen blending transportation, welding technology, as well as weld evaluation, testing, and repair procedures for natural gas pipelines.

1. Introduction

With the increasing attention to new developments in energy such as “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” and “transformation and transition” in line with societal progress [1], hydrogen energy, widely recognized as a renewable and clean energy source, holds significant advantages. These advantages include its abundant resources, high calorific value, and pollution-free usage, thereby offering broad prospects and an important position in the field of energy. It is regarded as one of the crucial strategies for achieving global carbon neutrality [1,2]. Currently, many countries are actively investing in the research and industrial layout of hydrogen energy technology. Countries such as the United States, the European Union, and Japan have even introduced corresponding hydrogen energy strategic plans to transition from traditional to sustainable and clean energy sources [3]. China places great importance on the high-quality development of the hydrogen energy industry. In March 2022, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the National Energy Administration (NEA) jointly released the “Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for the Hydrogen Energy Industry (2021–2035)”. This document clearly defines the energy attributes and significance of hydrogen, elucidating that hydrogen energy is an integral part of China’s energy system. It is a beneficial supplement to existing forms of energy, a vital vehicle for China’s green and low-carbon energy transition, and an important direction for the development of future strategic emerging industries [4,5]. Leading global energy companies are actively seizing the “golden opportunity” of high-quality development in the hydrogen energy industry and intensifying their presence in the hydrogen energy market. Among them, China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) is vigorously developing safe, efficient, and cost-effective hydrogen energy technologies. They are focusing on perfecting hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and utilization techniques while coordinating the overall development of the entire hydrogen energy value chain, including production, storage, transportation, and utilization [6]. The complete lifecycle of hydrogen energy technology mainly involves processes such as hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and utilization. Among these, hydrogen transportation plays a crucial role as it connects upstream hydrogen production and storage with downstream end-users.
Currently, blending hydrogen into natural gas pipelines is considered a potential optimal method for large-scale, long-distance, safe, and efficient hydrogen transportation [7,8,9]. Several hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline projects have been completed worldwide (Table 1). Since the early 21st century, countries and regions around the world have conducted application demonstration research. Demonstrations have been carried out in the European Union, Norway, the Netherlands, and other countries or regions. According to research results from various countries, the hydrogen blending ratio in demonstration projects and related research for hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines generally ranges from 5% to 50%. However, most actual hydrogen blending pipeline projects in countries fall within the range of 10% to 20% [10,11]. The NATURALHY research project led by the European Union and the HYREADY research project led by NV Nederlandse Gasunie in Norway have conducted detailed studies on hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation technology. These studies cover pipeline adaptability, safety, and interoperability analysis under different blending ratios, providing a solid foundation for subsequent research. Currently, global hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation aims to achieve 100% hydrogen transportation in existing natural gas networks. Based on existing demonstration projects, efforts are being made to retrofit and upgrade the existing natural gas pipeline network while further increasing the hydrogen blending ratio. In China, three hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline projects have been completed, achieving safe hydrogen blending ratios of up to 24% in pipeline transportation. In addition, in 2012, the Falkenhagen Wind–Hydrogen Demonstration Project in Germany demonstrated the entire process of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation [12]. In 2012, Mitsubishi tested a large-scale gas turbine capable of burning a hydrogen fuel mixture with a volume fraction of 30% [13]. In 2020, the Western Sydney Green Gas (WSGG) project in Australia utilized the natural gas network of New South Wales for hydrogen blending and transportation [14].
In a high-pressure hydrogen-rich natural gas environment, the risk of various hydrogen-induced damages to pipelines increases, leading to the deterioration of material mechanical properties and an increased risk of pipe failure and damage [25,26]. To address the long-distance utilization of hydrogen energy, hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines are primarily based on welded joints, connecting different pipe sections using various welding techniques to achieve the safe long-distance transportation of hydrogen gas within the pipelines. However, due to inherent defects and cracks in the welding process, the connection welds between pipe segments are more susceptible to leakage and other related safety incidents compared to the pipeline body itself. While natural gas pipeline transportation technology is already mature, the introduction of hydrogen brings new technical and safety challenges. With hydrogen blending, the pipeline is exposed to a high-pressure hydrogen-rich environment. The impact of hydrogen is not only on the pipeline material itself but also on the welded joints at the connection points, which should not be overlooked [27,28].
Welded joints are the weak points in natural gas pipelines, and the research on hydrogen-induced damage and adaptability assessment of welds and pipeline materials in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines started relatively late on a global scale. Insufficient research has been conducted on the evaluation of the resistance of metal welds to hydrogen-induced damage. The study of the degradation mechanisms and strengthening methods for the mechanical properties of welded joints in high-pressure hydrogen-blended environments has become a key technological bottleneck in the scale-up of the hydrogen energy industry for transportation. Therefore, further research is needed to investigate the adaptability of welds in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, delving deeper into the hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms of pipeline welds and materials. This will ensure the safe transportation of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines from a comprehensive and multi-scale perspective. To address these challenges, this paper systematically discusses the current domestic and international research status of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline construction, weld characteristics, hydrogen-induced damage mechanisms of welds, and methods to enhance their mechanical properties. Additionally, future research directions for understanding the hydrogen-induced damage mechanisms in welds of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines are highlighted.

2. Characteristics of Weld Seam of Hydrogen-Doped Natural Gas Pipeline

The welding method employed in natural gas pipelines is the foundation for determining the performance of the welds. The appearance, potential cracks, and damage of the welds formed during the welding process can significantly affect the diffusion and redistribution of hydrogen atoms within the microstructure. This, in turn, leads to a degradation of the weld’s mechanical properties and alterations in its microstructure [29,30,31]. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the welding methods and weld morphology in natural gas pipelines, clarifying the influence of welding methods on weld morphology and the hydrogen-blending adaptability of welds under different welding conditions.
Welding in pipeline steels includes the welding during pipe manufacturing and the circumferential weld joint between pipes. In the field service process, failures in the longitudinal and spiral welds formed during pipe manufacturing are relatively rare, and most of the existing failure issues are concentrated in the circumferential weld structure [32]. Large-diameter, high-grade gas transmission pipelines, in particular, are the key focus of crack formation and failure risk management in circumferential welds. Current long-distance high-pressure natural gas transmission pipelines are mainly welded using semi-automatic welding techniques. However, with the construction of new long-distance natural gas transmission pipelines, such as the China-Russia Eastern Gas Pipeline, the overall gas flow rates and pressures are increasing, and the pipeline sizes are also growing. To ensure the safe and efficient transportation of these pipelines, welding technology is gradually shifting towards fully automated welding techniques, leading to improved weld appearance [33,34,35]. Moreover, the non-destructive examination rate of welds formed by automated welding techniques is higher (above 97%), while welds formed by semi-automatic welding techniques can also achieve a non-destructive examination rate of up to 95%.
In addition, after a certain period of service, natural gas pipelines can experience erosion–corrosion on welds due to the gas flow and the presence of small particles. Regardless of the welding technique used, welds will eventually incur some level of damage. Figure 1 shows the appearance of a circumferential weld on a pipeline before and after it was put into operation in a certain location in Southwest China. The left side shows the weld before it was put into operation, while the right side shows the weld after it was put into operation. Apart from hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, which require special consideration, when welding operations are carried out on pipelines that already contain hydrogen, two key factors should be considered. First, there is a possibility of burn-through due to localized heating of the pipe wall. On the other hand, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) within weld seams experiences thermal influences associated with heating and cooling during the welding process, leading to varying degrees of microstructural and performance changes in the material. These changes include, but are not limited to, grain growth, phase transformations, and hardening, which in turn impact the strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance of the pipeline. Consequently, when designing and maintaining pipeline systems, engineers must account for the disparities between the base pipeline and the weld seam region to ensure the safety and reliability of the infrastructure [36,37].

3. Hydrogen Damage Mechanism of Hydrogen-Doped Natural Gas Pipeline Weld

The hydrogen-induced damage mechanism in welds of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines is similar to that in the base material. However, compared to the overall pipeline, the mechanical properties differ among different parts of the circumferential weld (base material, weld, and heat-affected zone), and material non-uniformity can affect the stability of the welded structure. Therefore, the welds are the primary focus of hydrogen-induced damage in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines.
A substantial body of research has been carried out by scholars on the phenomenon of hydrogen damage in metallic pipelines, leading to the proposition of various hydrogen damage theories, mainly including hydrogen-enhanced decohesion, hydrogen-induced dislocation emission, and hydrogen-induced vacancies [38,39,40]. Hydrogen-enhanced decohesion theory elucidates the embrittlement phenomenon by focusing on the decline in atomic bonding force caused by electron transfer between iron and hydrogen atoms [41,42,43]. Hydrogen-induced dislocation emission theory posits that the aggregation of hydrogen atoms at the crack tip precipitates dislocation motion, bolstering dislocation migration rates. This, in turn, intensifies localized plasticity at the crack tip, culminating in localized deformation. Additionally, further exploration of how hydrogen atoms influence hydrogen-induced dislocation emission and mobility during the welding process is essential for devising preventive measures and improving pipeline designs. The synergistic interplay between different hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms, including hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE), should also be considered, as they can impact the fracture process and influence hydrogen-assisted failure modes in metal welds [44,45,46]. In hydrogen-rich environments, hydrogen-induced vacancies and the resulting micro-void coalescence serve as significant damage mechanisms. Hydrogen is capable of permeating through the microstructure of metals comprising the pipelines, forming bonds with individual atoms. This creates what is termed “hydrogen vacancies”, which disrupt the structural stability of the pipeline material, leading to the formation of minuscule voids and internal fractures [47,48,49].
Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for formulating effective maintenance strategies and preventive measures in order to mitigate the risks of infrastructural damages in hydrogen-rich environments of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines. However, there exist ambiguities and contradictions among various hydrogen damage theories that remain unresolved [50,51,52]. Further research to clarify the mechanisms of hydrogen embrittlement is thus unequivocally required. This paper primarily elaborates on the combined conventional damage mechanisms and hydrogen damage in hydrogen-enriched gas pipelines, placing particular emphasis on the hydrogen blistering and decohesion mechanisms.
The hydrogen-induced damage in the base material of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines consists of six steps: hydrogen atom generation, hydrogen atom adsorption on the outer surface of the pipeline steel, hydrogen atom absorption into the inner surface of the pipeline steel, hydrogen atom diffusion within the lattice structure of the steel, local hydrogen atom aggregation, and the initiation of hydrogen-induced cracking. Currently, mechanical damage, brittle fracture, and corrosion damage are the main forms of damage in natural gas pipeline welds. The interconnection, coupling, and overlapping of various types of damage with hydrogen-induced damage make the damage mechanism of natural gas pipeline welds more complex. Figure 2 shows the mechanisms of single hydrogen-induced damage, hydrogen-induced damage combined with mechanical damage, hydrogen-induced damage combined with brittle fracture, and hydrogen-induced damage combined with corrosion damage in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds [53].

3.1. Hydrogen Damage Mechanism of Pipeline Weld

After hydrogen blending in natural gas pipelines, the pipeline welds are exposed to a high-pressure hydrogen-rich environment. In addition to the damages faced by conventional natural gas pipeline welds, the significant increase in hydrogen content and localized hydrogen saturation can lead to a decrease in the ductility of the welds, resulting in hydrogen-induced damage. Compared to the pipeline base material, the unique microstructure of welds allows for higher hydrogen trapping and accumulation capabilities, making them more susceptible to hydrogen-induced damage. Huang et al. [43] studied the mechanical properties of X70 pipeline steel weld joints under 10 MPa hydrogen pressure and found that with an increase in hydrogen concentration, the fatigue crack propagation rate in the heat-affected zone, base metal, and weld metal of the weld joint varied from high to low. The predicted fatigue life of X70 pipeline steel with a hydrogen blending ratio of 5% and an initial crack depth of 0.5 mm was only 1/10 of the normal life. Zhang et al. [44] conducted numerical simulations on the hydrogen diffusion in X80 steel spiral seam submerged arc welded pipes. The results showed that the weld area was a hydrogen accumulation zone, and the residual stress in the welding area increased the risk of hydrogen accumulation. Huang et al. [30] conducted experiments on X70 weld joints in a simulated 10 MPa natural gas/hydrogen mixture. The results showed that the degradation of the weld metal was more severe than that of the base metal. Alvaro et al. [45] found that the hydrogen embrittlement critical pressure of the heat-affected zone in X70 welds ranged from 0.1 to 0.6 MPa. Sun et al. [46] conducted potentiation polarization tests on the hydrogen distribution in X80 steel welds, and the results indicated that the synergistic effect of hydrogen and stress could lead to a higher susceptibility to hydrogen-induced cracking in the heat-affected zone. Gou et al. [47] analyzed the hydrogen-induced cracking behavior in X80 steel welds using surface analysis techniques and molecular dynamics models. The analysis showed that in the crystal system, cracks were prone to occur at grain boundaries, but were less likely to occur at the highest hydrogen concentration.
During welding and operation, there may be material defects in the welds, such as surface arc craters, surface gas pores, and surface cracks [54,55,56,57]. These defects promote the penetration and diffusion of hydrogen atoms in the weld area. Moreover, once hydrogen atoms enter the surface cracks formed during the welding process, they further intensify crack propagation, leading to more severe hydrogen-induced damage in the welds [58,59]. Therefore, under the same operating conditions, if there are more pre-existing defects in the welds and a higher concentration of transported hydrogen, the hydrogen-induced damage in the welds may be more severe than in the pipeline base steel.

3.2. Mechanical Damage Mechanism of Hydrogen Damage Superposition of Pipeline Welds

Mechanical damage is a common type of weld damage, and it can originate from various sources. Yang et al. [51] conducted a statistical analysis of 18 cases of circumferential weld failures in China over the past 10 years, with 10 cases involving leaks and 8 cases involving fractures. The analysis showed that the leak incidents were related to weld defects, particularly in challenging welding areas such as arc initiation and termination. On the other hand, the 8 fracture incidents were related to external loads on the pipeline, including ground movement, thawing and freezing, additional loads, and landslides. Jing [49] analyzed the fracture failures of large-diameter stainless steel pipeline welds from the perspectives of crack location, metallographic structure, fracture spectrum, chemical composition, and weld stress. It was pointed out that the combined action of residual welding stress and external sustained loads induced the initiation of weld cracks, which was the direct cause of weld failure. Luo et al. [56] conducted a failure analysis of a circumferential weld leak in a long-distance natural gas pipeline using methods such as macroscopic appearance, non-destructive testing, physical and chemical property detection, and metallographic structure analysis. The results indicated that internal pressure, residual stress, and external loads played a collective role in the process of crack propagation leading to final failure. The main causes of this failure process were identified as initial cracks, excessive mismatch, and weld root structure defects.
For hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, the critical hydrogen concentration that triggers hydrogen-induced cracking in welds is closely related to the local stress state. When local stresses are highly concentrated, the critical hydrogen concentration for crack initiation decreases [60,61,62,63,64]. Conversely, as stress decreases, the critical hydrogen concentration for crack initiation increases. Once the locally accumulated hydrogen concentration reaches a certain level, hydrogen-induced cracking can occur even without externally applied stress. Therefore, when external environmental loads act on the weld area, the penetration and diffusion of hydrogen atoms may contribute to hydrogen-induced cracking, which can overlay with weld cracks formed due to mechanical damage, exacerbating the damage in the welds of natural gas pipelines. Thus, when analyzing the failure mechanism of pipeline welds, it is important to consider the interaction between hydrogen damage and mechanical damage. Neglecting the influence of external loads while considering only hydrogen damage may not accurately reflect the failure behavior of pipelines in actual operating conditions. A comprehensive consideration of the interaction between hydrogen damage and mechanical damage can provide a more accurate and comprehensive assessment of pipeline safety.

3.3. Brittle Fracture Mechanism of Hydrogen Damage Superimposed on Pipeline Weld

In a study by Yang et al. [51] on the failure assessment of semi-automatic circumferential welds in high-grade steel pipelines, an evaluation curve for circumferential weld failure was established based on full-scale tensile tests of in-service X80 pipeline welds. The research findings indicated that the failure evaluation curve for X80 gas transmission pipeline circumferential welds lacked a transitional region and exhibited poorer plasticity compared to conventional materials, making them more susceptible to brittle failure. Li et al. [52] analyzed the cracking causes of circumferential welds in a gas transmission pipeline through chemical composition analysis, mechanical property testing, fracture analysis, metallography, and load analysis. The analysis indicated that improper nitrogen purging during welding led to embrittlement of the pipeline material. Under the combined effects of temperature-induced axial tensile stress and residual weld stress, cracks initiated at the unwelded or slag inclusion defect locations near the weld root and propagated in a brittle manner. In the case of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds, the superimposition of hydrogen damage on the mechanical embrittlement of the welds and the low-temperature embrittlement of the material altered the rate of brittle fracture in the welds, making them more prone to brittle failure.

3.4. Hydrogen Damage Superimposed Corrosion Damage Mechanism of Pipeline Welds

In a study conducted by Chen et al. [65], laboratory experiments such as tensile tests, Rockwell hardness tests, scanning electron microscopy observations, and X-ray energy spectrum analysis were carried out to analyze the mechanical properties, metallographic structure, corrosion morphology, and chemical composition of the failure zone in pipeline welds. The analysis suggested that the microstructural differences between the weld and the base material caused potential differences, making the weld more susceptible to electrochemical accelerated corrosion. The main causes of corrosion failure in pipeline welds were identified as Cl−, SO42−, CO2, bacteria, and welding processes. Li et al. [54] found through their research that the elements Mn and P in X70 pipeline steel had a significant influence on stress corrosion cracking induced by H2S. Due to the differences in composition, structure, and properties between the weld and the base material, as well as the presence of welding defects, the resistance to stress corrosion cracking in the weld was inferior to that of the X70 pipeline steel base material. In the case of single hydrogen damage in pipeline welds, it is mainly caused by the influence of hydrogen atoms on the metal lattice and the interaction between hydrogen and the metal. In hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds, the superimposition of hydrogen damage and corrosion damage mechanisms further exacerbates the failure of the welds. In addition to hydrogen damage, the welds are also subjected to erosion by corrosive media, which further weakens the mechanical properties of the welds and accelerates crack propagation.

4. Strengthening the Mechanical Properties of Weld Seam of Hydrogen-Doped Natural Gas Pipeline

The adsorption, permeation, and diffusion of hydrogen atoms can cause damage to the welds of pipeline sections, posing a serious threat to the safe transportation of hydrogen-blended natural gas [66]. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the mechanical properties of the welds in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, including strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance, in order to effectively protect the material at the weld location under complex conditions of hydrogen blending ratio, operating pressure, and temperature. The strengthening of weld mechanical properties should be based on the hydrogen damage mechanism and proposed targeted enhancement measures. For example, when analyzing the failure mechanism of pipeline welds, considering only single hydrogen damage and neglecting the influence of external loads may not accurately reflect the failure situation of the pipeline in actual working environments [67,68,69]. Comprehensive consideration of the interaction between hydrogen damage and mechanical damage can provide a more accurate and comprehensive evaluation of pipeline safety. As shown in Figure 3, based on the mechanisms of single hydrogen damage, hydrogen damage combined with mechanical damage, mechanism-based brittle fracture, and corrosion damage, this paper proposes targeted weld reinforcement methods from three perspectives: pipeline material structure, welding processes, and external coatings.

4.1. Pipeline Material Structure Optimization

By optimizing the material structure, it is possible to reduce the impact of material structure on weld quality and improve the mechanical performance of the welds. Additionally, this approach enhances the protection and crack resistance of the steel against hydrogen damage [70]. The following methods can be employed for optimization: (1) Optimize steel material selection: Prioritize the selection of low-carbon, low-alloy steels with high strength, good toughness, and weldability. This helps reduce the concentration of dissolved hydrogen in the pipe material while improving its strength and ductility [71]. (2) Optimize welding material selection: Choose welding materials with excellent high-temperature resistance, high-pressure resistance, and corrosion resistance. This effectively reduces adverse factors such as hydrogen-induced brittleness and residual welding stress during the welding process [72,73,74,75,76,77,78]. (3) Adjust the grain size of the pipe material: Add trace elements such as Nb and Ti to adjust the grain size in the pipe material, making the grains finer. This enhances the heat diffusion capacity in the welded area and improves the weld pool’s morphology [79,80,81,82,83,84,85].

4.2. Welding Process Optimization

Effective welding processes can significantly reduce the occurrence of critical defects in pipeline welds. With continuous advancements in welding technology and the upgrading of mechanical automation equipment, the methods used for welding natural gas long-distance transmission pipelines have gradually transitioned from manual arc welding to semi-automatic and automatic welding [86]. As mechanical automation becomes more widespread, innovative techniques like single and double-arc welding, laser-arc hybrid welding, and multi-torch automatic welding may also find application in the construction of new natural gas pipelines, potentially enabling hydrogen blending for transportation in the future [87]. Figure 4 provides an overview of the existing pipeline welding methods and their relevant characteristics. To ensure the protection of pipeline welds after hydrogen blending, it is advisable to employ semi-automatic and automatic welding techniques for in-service natural gas pipelines. However, prior to evaluating the suitability of hydrogen blending for natural gas pipeline welds, a comprehensive assessment of the specific weld damages in the target pipeline is crucial, including a thorough analysis to determine the feasibility of potential weld repairs.

4.3. Hydrogen-Resistant Coating for Pipeline Welds

Pipeline weld hydrogen barrier coatings are an effective way to improve the mechanical properties of welds. Specifically, pipeline weld hydrogen barrier coatings can be achieved through the following aspects: (1) Prevention of hydrogen atom infiltration [88]: By using multi-layer composite structures and special materials, the coatings can quickly eliminate crack sources and the harmful effects of hydrogen elements during long-term usage. (2) Optimization of coating materials [89]: Depending on the specific environment of the hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline, the materials, thickness, and uniform adhesion should be optimized accordingly. Existing hydrogen barrier repair materials for pipelines can be categorized as single coatings and composite coatings. Single coatings include silicon-based, titanium-based, aluminum-based, boride-based, as well as Cr2O3, Y2O3, ZrO2, and other coating materials, which can reduce the hydrogen permeability of steel surfaces by 3 to 6 orders of magnitude. However, single coatings may suffer from low fracture strain, inadequate adhesion, and coating defects. Composite materials can optimize the structural properties of the coating to enhance the hydrogen barrier effect. In recent years, with the rise of graphene materials, research on their hydrogen barrier performance has also received widespread attention. Covering metal surfaces with graphene can significantly reduce the internal hydrogen content in metals, lowering hydrogen permeability by 48 to 123 times [90]. (3) Ensuring the integrity of the coatings: The production and application of coatings should strictly follow standard operating procedures to ensure a smooth, crack-free, void-free, pollution-free, and oxidation-free coating surface. This improves the overall corrosion resistance of the coatings and prevents premature oxidation or detachment. The diagram in Figure 5 illustrates the mechanism of action for both single hydrogen barrier coatings and multi-structured composite coatings.

5. Summary and Prospect

(1) Conventional natural gas pipelines, made of welded or seamless steel pipes, are susceptible to material defects, mechanical damage, corrosion, and fatigue issues as they age. Exposure to hydrogen can lead to additional forms of damage like hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen-induced cracking, and blistering. The combined effect of conventional failures and hydrogen-induced damage in pipeline welds remains uncertain and warrants urgent investigation. Currently, there is limited research on how different hydrogen blending ratios impact the mechanical properties of weld materials in China. By employing a multi-scale characterization approach encompassing mechanical, microstructural, and chemical properties, we can systematically elucidate the deterioration mechanisms in high-pressure hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds.
(2) Research on hydrogen-blended pipelines primarily focuses on pure hydrogen or hydrogen-methane (or nitrogen) mixtures, which may not fully represent real-world hydrogen-blended natural gas environments. Natural gas blends not only methane and hydrogen, but also contain nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other components. For instance, a high-pressure natural gas pipeline in the Sichuan-Chongqing region of China consists of approximately 97.0% CH4, 1.43% CO2, and 1.01% N2. Additionally, in-service high-pressure natural gas pipelines may suffer internal damage due to erosion from sand and gravel during prolonged operation. The deterioration of mechanical properties in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds is influenced by various factors including erosion damage, pipeline pressure, hydrogen blending ratio, and the presence of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. This underscores the need for an interdisciplinary approach to understand the complex interactions between these factors.
(3) While current studies acknowledge the adverse effects of hydrogen blending in natural gas pipelines, there is still a lack of a comprehensive mechanical property database for typical pipeline steels under hydrogen-blended natural gas conditions, and specific methods to enhance the mechanical performance of high-pressure hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds are not well-defined. It is imperative to focus on PetroChina’s high-pressure hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation characteristics and draft methods for enhancing the mechanical performance of typical pipeline welds. Constructing a steel pipeline weld performance database under PetroChina’s hydrogen blending transportation environment will provide essential guidance for selecting appropriate welding processes, materials, and remedial measures for pipeline weld failures under different regional grades and pipeline design conditions.
(4) Standards and specifications are the important theoretical basis for pipeline transportation, and play a key guiding role in the transportation of hydrogen in natural gas pipelines. The existing standards mainly provide guidance for the safety of H2 and H2/CO hybrid transmission and distribution systems. Among them, GB/T31032-2014 [91] stipulates the evaluation method of weld material, which requires the full-size specimen to be cut by machinery or oxygen, and the two sides of the specimen should be smooth and parallel on the premise of retaining the thickening height of the weld. The existing standards do not specify the specific welding method of pipeline welds, nor do they provide standards for the welding of hydrogen-doped pipelines in service. Large-diameter, high-grade gas pipelines and welds with unequal wall thickness need to pay special attention to the causes of girth weld cracks and failure risk management. In the future, special attention should also be paid to the welding technology and welding seam of submarine pipeline mixed with hydrogen.
(5) With the in-depth study of hydrogen-induced mechanical properties degradation, it is particularly important to accurately predict the degree of hydrogen-induced damage. However, the high cost and time-consuming of traditional experimental methods limit the breadth and depth of research. Therefore, the application of artificial intelligence technology has become a powerful tool to solve this problem. By establishing a machine learning model, the influence of hydrogen concentration on the properties of materials can be accurately predicted, and the experimental cost can be greatly reduced, which provides a new idea for research [92,93]. The future research direction can focus on further promoting the development of hydrogen-induced damage prediction methods, especially when considering the use conditions and applied loads related to weldments. This will provide more forward-looking guidance for engineering practice.

Funding

This research was funded by the Postdoctoral Foundation of PetroChina Southwest Oil & Gasfield Company (grant number 20230312-10) and 2023 Science and Technology Innovation Talent Project of CNPC-CZU Innovation Alliance, grant number (CCIA 2023-10).

Data Availability Statement

The data cited in this paper has been marked with references, and the pictures are all from our team’s own research results.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Morphology of circumferential welds in natural gas pipelines: (a) weld seam of pipeline before production, (b) weld seam of pipeline in production.
Figure 1. Morphology of circumferential welds in natural gas pipelines: (a) weld seam of pipeline before production, (b) weld seam of pipeline in production.
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Figure 2. (a) Welding seam and heat affected zone of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline. (b) Single hydrogen damage mechanism. (c) Hydrogen damage combined with mechanical damage mechanism. (d) Hydrogen damage superimposed brittle fracture mechanism. (e) Mechanism of hydrogen damage combined with corrosion damage.
Figure 2. (a) Welding seam and heat affected zone of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline. (b) Single hydrogen damage mechanism. (c) Hydrogen damage combined with mechanical damage mechanism. (d) Hydrogen damage superimposed brittle fracture mechanism. (e) Mechanism of hydrogen damage combined with corrosion damage.
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Figure 3. Strengthening method for mechanical properties of welds in hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline.
Figure 3. Strengthening method for mechanical properties of welds in hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline.
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Figure 4. Welding process and characteristics of long-distance transportation pipeline.
Figure 4. Welding process and characteristics of long-distance transportation pipeline.
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Figure 5. Mechanism of single hydrogen barrier coating and multi structure composite coating. (a) Mechanism of single coating action. (b) Mechanism of multi structure composite coating.
Figure 5. Mechanism of single hydrogen barrier coating and multi structure composite coating. (a) Mechanism of single coating action. (b) Mechanism of multi structure composite coating.
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Table 1. Overview of global hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation projects.
Table 1. Overview of global hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation projects.
NumberCompanyNameCountries and RegionsHydrogen Doping Ratio (%)Starting Year
1Dutch Economy [15]VG2Netherlands-Rosemburg52001
2NV NederlandseGasunie [16]NATURALHYEuropean Union0~502004
3Ameland, GasTerra, Stedin [17]Sustainable AmelandHolland-Ameland Island202008
4DVN GL [13]HYREADYNorway0~302014
5ITM Power [14]HyDeployUK-Kiel202017
6ENGIE [15]GRHYDFrance-Dunkirk202018
7State Power Investment Corporation Limited [18]Chaoyang Demonstration ProjectChina-Liaoning Chaoyang City102018
8DVGW [19]AvaconGermany-Skopsdorf202019
9SNAM [20]ContursiTermeItaly-Salerno102019
10AGIG [21]HYPSAAustralia-Adelaide102019
11Honghua Clean Energy Technology Co., LTD., State Power Investment Group Co., LTD. [22,23]Zhangjiakou hydrogen-mixed natural gas pipeline demonstration projectChina-Zhangjiakou, Hebei Province-2020
12China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau [24]Ningdong natural gas hydrogen mixing pipeline demonstration platformChina-Yinchuan, Ningxia242023
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Ban, J.; Yan, X.; Song, B.; Deng, S.; Wu, H.; Tang, Y.; Yin, W. Research Progress and Prospects on Hydrogen Damage in Welds of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Pipelines. Processes 2023, 11, 3180. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113180

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Ban J, Yan X, Song B, Deng S, Wu H, Tang Y, Yin W. Research Progress and Prospects on Hydrogen Damage in Welds of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Pipelines. Processes. 2023; 11(11):3180. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113180

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Ban, Jiuqing, Xiaopeng Yan, Bin Song, Song Deng, Hua Wu, Yongfan Tang, and Wen Yin. 2023. "Research Progress and Prospects on Hydrogen Damage in Welds of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Pipelines" Processes 11, no. 11: 3180. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113180

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