Digitizing the Higaonon Language: A Mobile Application for Indigenous Preservation in the Philippines

Abstract

This research addresses the critical need for language preservation among the Higaonon indigenous community in Mindanao, Philippines, through the development of a culturally responsive mobile dictionary application. The Higaonon language faces significant endangerment due to generational language shift, limited documentation, and a scarcity of educational materials. Employing user-centered design principles and participatory lexicography, this study involved collaboration with tribal elders, educators, and youth to document and digitize Higaonon vocabulary across ten culturally significant semantic domains. Each Higaonon lexeme was translated into English, Filipino, and Cebuano to enhance comprehension across linguistic groups. The resulting mobile application incorporates multilingual search capabilities, offline access, phonetic transcriptions, example sentences, and culturally relevant design elements. An evaluation conducted with 30 participants (15 Higaonon and 15 non-Higaonon speakers) revealed high satisfaction ratings across functionality (4.81/5.0), usability (4.63/5.0), and performance (4.73/5.0). Offline accessibility emerged as the most valued feature (4.93/5.0), while comparative analysis identified meaningful differences in user experience between native and non-native speakers, with Higaonon users providing more critical assessments particularly regarding font readability and performance optimization. The application demonstrates how community-driven technological interventions can support indigenous language revitalization while respecting cultural integrity, intellectual property rights, and addressing practical community needs. This research establishes a framework for ethical indigenous language documentation that prioritizes community self-determination and provides empirical evidence that culturally responsive digital technologies can effectively preserve endangered languages while serving as repositories for cultural knowledge embedded within linguistic systems.

1. Introduction

Technology provides essential support for minority language communities working to preserve and revitalize their endangered linguistic traditions [1]. Through technological intervention, languages can be documented, electronically stored, and maintained in digital formats [2]. The increasing availability and accessibility of digital tools—including mobile applications—have provided promising pathways for language preservation, especially for communities experiencing language endangerment.

In recent years, mobile applications have become powerful tools in the global movement toward language revitalization. These technologies support the use of indigenous languages in new communicative domains and foster connections among diverse speakers [3,4]. Social media and mobile platforms infuse minority languages with renewed relevance and broaden their linguistic functions and audience [5]. This digital shift is especially significant for indigenous peoples, whose languages are under-documented and underutilized in contemporary settings.

One such community in the Philippines is the Higaonon, an indigenous group primarily residing in the northern and central parts of Mindanao [6]. As with many indigenous languages, the Higaonon language is at risk due to several interrelated factors, including generational language shift, limited documentation, and a scarcity of educational materials in the Higaonon Language [7]. Despite these challenges, the Higaonon people express strong cultural pride and a desire to preserve their language, which plays a vital role in their identity and oral traditions.

The integration of mobile technology—specifically through a multi-lingual dictionary application—offers a feasible and culturally sensitive solution to address the risk of language loss. Such applications allow community members, educators, and learners to access Higaonon vocabulary, pronunciation, and usage examples regardless of time and place. This mobile approach supports language learning and revitalization efforts, especially among younger generations who are digitally native and often more exposed to dominant languages. According to Cajetas [7], Higaonon communities confirms that learning their language “helps preserve the language and Indigenous culture” while fostering cultural pride through language preservation. Digital language preservation initiatives have proven successful for other indigenous communities through various interactive formats, including multimedia resources that incorporate audio recordings and culturally relevant materials [3].

Furthermore, according to Statista [8], the Philippines has approximately 76.7 million smartphone users, with a substantial portion of youth and adults spending several hours daily on their devices for communication and information access. This widespread adoption of mobile technology presents an opportunity to harness familiar digital platforms for educational advancement and cultural preservation initiatives.

Despite the recognized potential of digital technologies for language preservation, no comprehensive digital dictionary or mobile application has been developed specifically for the Higaonon language prior to this study. While limited efforts have documented Higaonon vocabulary in academic publications [6,7,9], these remain confined to scholarly contexts and lack the accessibility and interactive features necessary for community-wide language learning and revitalization. Similarly, although digital language preservation initiatives have been implemented for other Philippine indigenous languages—such as basic word lists for Ilocano and Tagalog available through government portals—these resources are primarily static repositories rather than dynamic learning tools designed with community input and cultural sensitivity. The absence of dedicated technological resources for Higaonon represents a significant gap in indigenous language preservation efforts in the Philippines, particularly given the language’s vulnerable status and the community’s expressed desire for accessible learning materials.

In 2023, the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF)—the national agency tasked with protecting and promoting the country’s languages—developed the official Higaonon orthography, Ortograpiya ha Hinigaunon. While this represents an important milestone, it does not fully address the broader need for comprehensive studies and resources to support the preservation and revitalization of the Higaonon language [10]. This study addresses two primary research questions that guide the investigation: (1) How can a mobile dictionary application be designed and developed to preserve and revitalize the Higaonon language through community-centered approaches? (2) How do Higaonon and non-Higaonon users perceive and evaluate the mobile application’s functionality, usability, and performance? The contribution of this research lies in demonstrating how digital technologies and their innovations can protect language as intangible cultural heritage while simultaneously empowering indigenous communities through culturally grounded technological solutions. This study provides empirical evidence that user-centered and culturally responsive approaches to developing digital technologies such as mobile dictionaries can effectively support the preservation of endangered Philippine and global languages, particularly those from marginalized communities.

Specifically, this work contributes to the growing field of indigenous language preservation by documenting the complete development process of a community-driven mobile dictionary application, from initial community consultation through technical implementation and user evaluation. The research establishes a framework for ethical indigenous language documentation that prioritizes community self-determination and cultural intellectual property rights. Additionally, the comparative evaluation between native and non-native users provides insights into how different stakeholder groups experience and assess culturally specific language technologies, informing future development of similar preservation tools. The Higaonon mobile dictionary represents a practical application of digital preservation principles that addresses the immediate needs of an endangered language community while serving as a replicable model for similar initiatives with other indigenous languages facing comparable threats to their linguistic survival. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to help preserve and strengthen the Higaonon language by developing a multi-lingual mobile dictionary app specifically designed for the needs and context of the Higaonon community.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Higaonon People and Their Language

2.1.1. Cultural and Geographic Context

The Higaonon are an indigenous group who historically inhabited the coastal regions of Misamis Oriental before gradually retreating to the highlands due to the arrival of migrants, particularly from the Visayas region. The name “Higaonon” is derived from the root word higa, meaning “to live” or “to dwell,” and gaon, meaning “mountain,” thus referring to the “people of the living mountains.” [7]. The Higaonon language, classified under the Manobo subgroup of the Greater Central Philippine languages, is a vital expression of their identity and worldview [11].

Currently, the Higaonon reside primarily in the northern and central parts of Mindanao, Philippines, particularly in the provinces of Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and Lanao del Norte [6]. They inhabit the mountainous regions of Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon plateau, and the mountain borders of the provinces of Agusan and Lanao in the east and west, respectively. These regions are culturally and linguistically diverse, inhabited by various ethnolinguistic communities such as the Cebuano, Binukid, and Manobo peoples [11]. In terms of population, specific figures for the Higaonon are difficult to establish with certainty. Earlier estimates suggested that there were approximately 100,000 Higaonon members from Misamis Oriental to Cagayan de Oro City, with an average of 6.3 members per household [11].

2.1.2. Documentation Efforts and Academic Literature

Despite the cultural and linguistic significance of the Higaonon language, formal documentation efforts have remained limited, fragmented, and largely incidental. Existing academic work has been primarily anthropological rather than linguistic, emphasizing cultural practices and oral traditions instead of systematic language study. For instance, Cajetas-Saranza (2016) documented Higaonon oral literature and cultural heritage but included only minimal lexical analysis [7]. More recent ethnographic research by Balangiao and Walag (2022) and Abatayo (2024) incorporated vocabulary collection within broader cultural and ethnobotanical studies, yet these contributions were peripheral to their primary objectives [6,9].

Systematic lexicographic studies, comprehensive vocabulary compilations, and standardized orthographic frameworks remain notably absent from the existing literature. In contrast, related Manobo languages such as Binukid have received more sustained linguistic attention, particularly through initiatives of the Summer Institute of Linguistics and missionary organizations. Higaonon, however, has not benefited from comparable systematic documentation efforts [11]. While the National Commission for Culture and the Arts acknowledges the Manobo language family as a whole, it provides limited resources that directly address the specific linguistic needs of Higaonon.

Community-led preservation practices persist primarily through oral transmission, such as storytelling, rituals, and intergenerational communication within families and cultural gatherings. Although these practices are vital for cultural continuity, they do not provide the systematic documentation, standardized materials, or accessible platforms necessary for effective revitalization. This gap is particularly significant for younger generations who are increasingly immersed in dominant languages. In the absence of formal educational materials, standardized orthographies, or digital resources, Higaonon documentation remains confined to academic contexts, with limited accessibility and practical application for the community.

2.1.3. Language Vitality and Current Status

Although Higaonon is still spoken in many rural communities, the language is increasingly at risk due to the prevalence of more dominant languages such as Cebuano, Filipino, and English [7,12]. The lack of formal orthography, limited written materials, and minimal linguistic documentation further exacerbate intergenerational transmission decline [9,11]. Ethnologue identifies Higaonon as a vulnerable language, with speakers primarily found in Gingoog, Claveria, Magsaysay, and parts of Malaybalay and Impasug-ong [12]. This vulnerability classification is consistent with other research findings. Balangiao and Walag (2022) documented Higaonon communities in Mat-i, Claveria, noting that while the language is still actively used in these rural settings, it faces increasing pressure from dominant languages [6]. Similarly, research by Abatayo (2024) focused on Higaonon communities in Simbalan and Buenavista, found that preservation efforts are ongoing but challenged by various sociolinguistic factors [6,9].

2.2. Language Endangerment and Maintenance Challenges

Language Shift Dynamics in Philippine Indigenous Communities

Language shift in multilingual Philippine communities occurs when speakers gradually adopt dominant languages (Cebuano, Filipino, English) for economic and political advantage, leading to reduced intergenerational transmission of indigenous languages [13,14]. Despite these pressures, communities like the Higaonon actively pursue language maintenance strategies [15].

The Higaonon language, which belongs to the Manobo language family, is still spoken in some rural areas of northern Mindanao. However, increasing urbanization, migration within the region, and the widespread use of Cebuano have led to fewer people, especially young speakers, using the Higaonon language [12]. As Musgrave (2014) noted in the context of Indonesia, major local languages in more developed regions tend to have better chances of survival compared to those in remote or marginalized areas. A similar pattern can be observed in the Philippines, where language maintenance varies significantly across regions and indigenous groups [16].

National and local institutions have recognized the risk of language extinction. In response, the Philippine government has implemented several initiatives aimed at protecting linguistic diversity [17]. The Indigenous Peoples Education (IPEd) program and the Department of Education’s Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) policy promote the inclusion of indigenous languages like Higaonon in formal education [18]. However, the preservation of a language relies not only on institutional support but also on the solidarity and resilience of its community. Native speakers must build and maintain cohesive communities that can withstand external linguistic and cultural influences [19]. Furthermore, when these communities relocate or engage in new communicative contexts, it is essential that they are afforded the right and opportunity to incorporate their native language and cultural identity into these new environments [20].

2.3. Role of Technology in Higaonon Language Preservation

2.3.1. Philippine Digital Language Initiatives

Digital language preservation efforts in the Philippines have primarily focused on major national and regional languages rather than indigenous minority languages. The Department of Education’s K-12 curriculum integration has spurred the development of basic digital resources for widely spoken mother tongues, including Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, and Waray, with simple word lists and educational materials available through government portals [17,18]. Commercial applications such as Google Translate have incorporated Filipino and major regional languages, while academic institutions have developed limited online dictionaries for languages like Kapampangan and Pangasinan.

However, digital initiatives for indigenous languages remain sparse and fragmented. The Summer Institute of Linguistics has produced some digital resources for select Manobo dialects, including basic Binukid word lists and biblical translations, but these efforts have not extended to comprehensive interactive tools or mobile applications [11]. Similarly, while the National Commission for Culture and the Arts acknowledges the linguistic diversity of Mindanao’s indigenous communities, practical digital resources remain limited to static documentation rather than dynamic learning tools.

More critically, existing digital language tools in the Philippines have typically been developed without meaningful indigenous community participation, often resulting in resources that fail to address community priorities or cultural contexts. Commercial language applications prioritize languages with large user bases and economic viability, systematically excluding smaller indigenous languages like Higaonon. This pattern reflects broader digital inequities that marginalize indigenous linguistic heritage within technological development priorities.

2.3.2. Philippine-Based Digital Language Preservation Projects

According to Eberhard et al. (2025) [21], the Philippines is home to 186 languages, 59 of which are classified as endangered and two (2) as dying. These languages face threats from globalization, migration, and the increasing dominance of major regional and national languages. In light of this, digital preservation has become a crucial strategy for documenting, revitalizing, and sustaining these linguistic heritages. Notable initiatives include the Hanunoo Mangyan Language App and the Marayum Project. De La Salle University has played a significant role in these preservation efforts, particularly through its work with the Hanunoo Mangyan language [22]. Beyond documentation, the university developed a mobile electronic dictionary designed to support both language learning and revitalization. By digitizing the Hanunoo script and vocabulary, the project not only safeguards valuable linguistic data but also fosters cultural pride and accessibility among younger Mangyan speakers. This initiative was funded by the Department of Science and Technology-National Research Council of the Philippines (DOST-NRCP). Similarly, the University of the Philippines Diliman has contributed to language preservation through the Marayum Project, supported by the Department of Science and Technology-Grants-in-Aid (DOST-GIA) program [23]. Marayum is a community-sourced online dictionary built on a web-based platform, emphasizing participatory lexicography. It empowers native speakers to actively contribute entries, fostering both digital literacy and linguistic pride within marginalized communities. These initiatives reflect a growing movement toward community-centered digital preservation, where technology is used not as a top-down intervention but as a collaborative tool for empowerment. They also underscore the importance of interdisciplinary partnerships—bringing together expertise in linguistics, computer science, and cultural studies—to address the complex challenges facing low-resource and endangered languages.

2.3.3. Mobile Applications for Language Revitalization

Digital language preservation tools offer practical solutions to these challenges by providing accessible resources that support both formal education and community-based learning. Mobile applications specifically address the mobility and connectivity needs of indigenous communities while offering features that traditional print resources cannot provide—including audio pronunciation guides, interactive search capabilities, and multimedia integration [3]. For geographically dispersed communities like the Higaonon, mobile technology can bridge physical distances and provide consistent access to linguistic resources regardless of location.

Local leaders and elders play a central role in Higaonon preservation through oral traditions, rituals, and community gatherings [9]. However, the lack of written materials, digital content, and a standardized orthography limits the reach and transmission of the Higaonon language in modern contexts. To address this gap, community-led initiatives and technological tools—such as mobile dictionary applications—can play a transformative role. These platforms offer accessible learning resources and serve as a means to document, archive, and revitalize endangered languages [12].

Mobile technology has become a vital instrument in the efforts to maintain and revitalize endangered languages. Mobile applications, such as Android-based dictionaries, function as digital repositories, preserving vocabulary, pronunciation, and other linguistic features of local languages [24]. Furthermore, the potential of these platforms to store and share culturally significant content, including oral narratives and pronunciation guides, thereby supporting language learning and cultural continuity [25,26]. By offering interactive and accessible tools, especially for younger users, mobile applications create opportunities for meaningful engagement with Indigenous languages, promoting their use within modern digital environments.

Moreover, mobile technology enhances access to linguistic resources, even in geographically isolated areas. In the Philippines, smartphone usage continues to grow in both rural and urban settings, particularly among youth [8]. This trend presents an opportunity for indigenous communities to preserve and promote their languages through digital platforms. Mobile dictionaries can provide offline access to curated lexical words, example sentences, and pronunciations that support both self-directed learning and formal instruction.

For the Higaonon community, the development of a mobile dictionary application could serve as a pivotal step for language preservation. By digitally archiving vocabulary and culturally significant terms, such an application can facilitate everyday use and encourage intergenerational transmission of the language. Additionally, it offers non-native speakers, including educators and researchers, enhanced access to the language, thereby contributing to its visibility and long-term sustainability. Mobile applications provide Indigenous communities with practical and scalable solutions for safeguarding and revitalizing Higaonon linguistic heritage. Incorporating digital tools into language preservation strategies ensures that the Higaonon language not only endures but also adapts and thrives within both traditional and contemporary contexts.

3. Methodology

The methodology integrates principles of user-centered design, mobile technology, and participatory lexicography to create a culturally relevant, accessible mobile dictionary.

3.1. Ethical Considerations and Community Collaborations

This research adhered to established ethical guidelines for working with Indigenous communities in the Philippines, notably the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997 and protocols established by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) [27]. These frameworks ensure that research involving Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs) respects their rights, autonomy, and cultural integrity [28,29]. Prior to initiating fieldwork, the research team obtained a Certificate of Free and Prior Informed Consent (FPIC) from the Higaonon community through formal consultations with tribal leaders and elders, and research permits from the NCIP regional office with jurisdiction over the research sites, and Institutional Review Board approval from the affiliated academic institution, Mindanao State University—Iligan Institute of Technology. These measures ensured compliance with ethical standards protecting indigenous intellectual property rights and cultural integrity [28,30].

Higaonon community members served as active collaborators rather than passive subjects. A local research committee comprising tribal elders, educators, and youth representatives was established to guide the selection of lexical entries, validate cultural interpretations and translations, and facilitate community adoption and sustainability planning. This collaborative approach recognized the Higaonon community’s right to self-determination in language preservation efforts and ensured cultural sensitivity throughout the research process.

3.2. Data Collection and Documentation

Fieldwork was conducted through a combination of interviews, informal conversations, and oral storytelling sessions with native Higaonon speakers, including both key informants and validators. These interactions enabled the research team to document authentic language use across a range of real-life contexts, facilitating the collection of diverse linguistic features such as vocabulary, pronunciation, syntax, and idiomatic expressions. With the informed consent of participants, audio recordings were made to ensure accurate preservation of pronunciation and tonal qualities. In addition to linguistic data, contextual information regarding cultural practices and traditions was also gathered, acknowledging the intrinsic link between language and culture in indigenous communities.

3.3. Lexicographic Analysis

The collected linguistic data were systematically analyzed using established lexicographic methods tailored for endangered language documentation [31]. Audio recordings were transcribed using a modified orthography developed in collaboration with the community to ensure cultural and linguistic accuracy. Vocabulary items were selected based on their frequency of use, cultural relevance, and pedagogical value. These entries were classified into ten semantic cultural domains: (1) Physical World; (2) Parts of the Body; (3) Parts of the House; (4) Animals and Insects; (5) Social Relations; (6) Tools and Equipments; (7) Plants and Fruits; (8) Human Traits, Dimensions, Time, Direction, Taste, and Physical Characteristics; (9) Physical Activities; and (10) Culture and Beliefs. A standardized lexical entry format was developed, as illustrated in

Table 1. Standardized entry format for Higaonon lexical entries.

Component	Description
Headword	The Higaonon term written in the agreed orthography.
Part of Speech	Identified based on syntactic behavior and validated through community usage.
Phonetic	A pronunciation guide using a consistent phonetic system.
Definition	A concise explanation of the term’s meaning.
Filipino Translation	The equivalent term or meaning in Filipino.
English Translation	The equivalent term or meaning in English.
Cebuano Translation	The equivalent term or meaning in Cebuano.
Higaonon Example Sentence	A sample sentence in Higaonon, reflecting natural usage.
Filipino Example Sentence	A translation of the Higaonon example into Filipino.
English Example Sentence	A translation of the Higaonon example into English.

.

Audio recordings were utilized exclusively during the data collection phase for pronunciation validation with native speakers and accurate linguistic documentation [32]; however, the current mobile application does not include audio playback functionality for end users. All pronunciation information is presented through phonetic transcriptions using a simplified system adapted from standard linguistic notation but modified for community accessibility, prioritizing readability for Higaonon users over strict International Phonetic Alphabet conventions.

3.4. Mobile Dictionary Design and Development

The mobile application design followed iterative user-centered design principles with four development phases [33]: requirements gathering through community consultations to identify essential features and accessibility needs; low-fidelity prototyping using paper prototypes evaluated through cognitive walkthroughs with prospective users; high-fidelity development with functional prototype implementation of core features; and iterative refinement involving three cycles of user testing and modification.

Mobile Application Architecture

The application was developed using a three-layered architecture (Figure 1), comprising the User Interface (UI) Layer, Logic Layer, and Data Layer. The UI Layer was developed using Expo (React Native) Router as the framework. The Logic Layer serves as a bridge between the UI and the data, employing custom React hooks to modularize functionality and manage database transactions. The Data Layer uses a lexical database stored locally in SQLite to support offline usage. However, database updates currently require manual modification of the SQLite file and redistribution of the application, as no dynamic update mechanism has been implemented. This configuration ensures cross-platform compatibility (Android and iOS) while maintaining acceptable performance on entry-level smartphones commonly used in rural Philippine and Higaonon communities.

The application employs a simplified database architecture consisting of a single SQLite table structure designed to accommodate the lexical entry format. The database schema contains the following fields: entry_id (primary key), higaonon_word (headword), part_of_speech, phonetic_transcription, english_translation, filipino_translation, cebuano_translation, higaonon_example, filipino_example, and english_example. This denormalized single-table approach was deliberately chosen to optimize query performance for the limited dataset size (591 entries) and reduce application complexity, eliminating the need for complex joins that could impact performance on entry-level devices commonly used in rural communities.

The technical architecture incorporates cultural considerations beyond surface-level design elements. Font rendering supports Higaonon orthographic requirements as established by the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino’s 2023 standardization [10]. The semantic domain organization reflects community-defined cultural categories rather than linguistically imposed taxonomies. Search algorithms accommodate multilingual query patterns reflecting natural code-switching behaviors observed in Higaonon speakers.

The application’s offline-first architecture responds to both infrastructural realities and cultural concerns about unauthorized language access, though this study acknowledges that technical measures alone cannot address complex issues of cultural intellectual property protection.

3.5. Mobile Application Evaluation

The evaluation of the Higaonon dictionary mobile application utilized a three-dimensional framework adapted from [34] usability heuristics principles, as illustrated in Figure 2. The assessment focused on (1) functionality, referring to the application’s technical features and their implementation; (2) usability, concerning the interface design and ease of use for diverse user groups; and (3) performance, which examined the application’s technical efficiency and reliability on target devices [34]. These dimensions were selected based on established evaluation protocols for mobile applications and were hypothesized to collectively contribute to overall user satisfaction.

3.5.1. Evaluation Instruments

Evaluation data were gathered through a structured questionnaire, as shown in Appendix A. The first section collected demographic information, including participants’ age, gender, educational background, device specifications, and proficiency in the Higaonon language. The second section featured 13 Likert-scale items designed to measure perceptions of the application’s functionality (5 items), usability (4 items), and performance (4 items), using a 5-point scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”.

Table 2. App evaluation dimensions and checkpoints.

Category	Description	Item Numbers
User Profile	Captures participants’ self-reported Higaonon proficiency and frequency of use to contextualize their responses.	1, 2
Functionality	Assesses how well core features of the app perform.	3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Usability	Evaluates the ease of navigating the app, including interface intuitiveness, readability, and search bar placement.	8, 9, 10, 11
Performance	Measures technical performance indicators such as loading speed, scrolling responsiveness, and stability (crashes or freezes).	12, 13, 14

presents the evaluation questions, systematically adapted from established and validated usability assessment instruments to ensure psychometric reliability and construct validity. Functionality questions addressing search capabilities, result relevance, offline access, word suggestion features, and favorites utility (Questions 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) were derived from the MAUQ’s “system information arrangement” subscale, which evaluates how well users can navigate and utilize app functions such as information retrieval and system feedback [35]. The offline access question specifically draws from mobile-specific usability frameworks that address connectivity constraints unique to mobile applications [36], while the favorites feature question aligns with feature-specific usability evaluation principles commonly employed in mobile app assessment studies [37]. Usability questions concerning interface intuitiveness, text readability, search bar accessibility, and navigation consistency (Questions 8, 9, 10, and 11) were adapted from both the SUS’s ease-of-use constructs and MAUQ’s “ease of use and satisfaction” subscale, which collectively measure user confidence and comfort with system interfaces [35]. The readability question incorporates established design usability principles that evaluate visual clarity and information presentation effectiveness [38]. Performance questions addressing loading speed, scrolling responsiveness, and system stability (Questions 12, 13, and 14) were informed by performance benchmarking standards commonly used in mobile app usability studies, particularly those measuring system efficiency and reliability as core usability dimensions [36].

3.5.2. Participant Selection and Data Collection

Participants were selected using convenience sampling with an arbitrarily fixed quota per group to ensure the inclusion of both native Higaonon speakers (15) and potential external learners (15) of the language [39]. This combined sampling strategy was employed to deliberately recruit participants capable of offering diverse, contextually grounded, and contrasting perspectives on the usability and cultural appropriateness of the mobile dictionary application.

The sample size of 30 participants was determined by institutional and ethical constraints rather than conventional power analysis. Following extensive consultation with the Higaonon community council and in accordance with NCIP guidelines for research involving Indigenous Cultural Communities, the tribal council resolution specifically limited research participation to 30 community members to minimize disruption to community activities [30]. This constraint reflects the community’s right to self-determination regarding research participation levels, as enshrined in the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997. While this sample size is smaller than those typically recommended for quantitative studies, it aligns with established practices in indigenous research, where community protocols take precedence over conventional statistical requirements [40].

While this sample size aligns with established practices for usability testing of specialized applications [35], significant limitations exist in the study design. This evaluation should be considered exploratory research that provides initial insights into user experience rather than definitive conclusions about application effectiveness. The small sample size (n = 30) and convenience sampling approach limit the generalizability of the findings beyond the specific participant group. The evaluation questionnaire was administered in person. Prior to data collection, the researchers explained the objectives of the study and obtained informed consent from all participants. To ensure meaningful engagement with the application, each participant was required to use the mobile dictionary for at least 15 min before completing the evaluation.

3.5.3. Data Analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using python version 3.13.0 software. Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions, were calculated for all evaluation dimensions (functionality, usability, and performance) as well as for individual questionnaire items [36]. Comparative analysis between Higaonon and non-Higaonon user groups focused on descriptive comparisons of group means and standard deviations. Given the small sample sizes (n = 15 per group), the exploratory nature of the study, and the emphasis on practical differences rather than population inferences, formal significance testing was not performed. Instead, the analysis prioritized identifying user experience patterns and areas for application improvement [41]. Agreement rates were calculated as the percentage of participants rating items 4 (Agree) or 5 (Strongly Agree) on the 5-point Likert scale. Group differences were examined through mean score comparisons, with differences of 0.2 points or greater considered practically meaningful within the 5-point scale range.

A mixed-methods analytical framework was applied, combining descriptive statistics with comparative analysis. This approach enabled a comprehensive assessment of user satisfaction across the three evaluation dimensions, highlighting both shared strengths and group-specific insights. Descriptive findings identified the highest- and lowest-rated features within each dimension, while comparative analysis revealed differences in satisfaction between Higaonon and non-Higaonon participants, providing guidance for future development priorities and ensuring cultural relevance of the mobile dictionary.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. User Interface Design and Implementation

4.1.1. Color Scheme and Logo Design

The application incorporates four distinct colors, each carrying deep cultural significance. Black represents the foundational framework of customary law, which governs and protects Higaonon society. Red signifies the courage and valor of the Higaonon people in defending their ancestral domains and cultural identity. Yellow embodies sincerity, hope, and illumination. White stands for purity, reflecting the tribe’s commitment to pure intentions, peace, and honesty in their dealings [7,42].

The logo design (Figure 3) meaningfully reflects Higaonon cultural heritage and values. The circular shape symbolizes unity, wholeness, and community—foundational concepts in Higaonon culture that visually reinforce indigenous communal values. The “H”-like structure represents “Higaonon,” while its distinctive zigzag edges evoke the mountainous landscapes of their ancestral territories, affirming their identity as “people of the mountains.” The horizontal bars symbolize connections between different aspects of Higaonon reality. The diamond shapes positioned above and below the “H” represent vigilance, wisdom, or the link between earthly and spiritual realms in Higaonon cosmology [42]. Through this thoughtful integration of culturally significant elements, the logo not only serves as a recognizable application icon but also honors and preserves the authentic cultural symbolism of the Higaonon community.

4.1.2. Higaonon Dictionary Mobile Application

The Higaonon mobile dictionary contains 591 validated lexical entries systematically organized across ten thematic categories that reflect both linguistic diversity and cultural priorities identified through community consultation. The lexical database follows the standardized entry format established in Table 1, with each entry containing multiple data fields including headword, part of speech, phonetic transcription, trilingual translations (Filipino, English, Cebuano), and contextual example sentences. The distribution of entries prioritizes culturally significant domains as shown in

Table 3. Distribution of lexical entries by semantic domain.

Semantic Domain	Number of Entries	Percentage
Parts of the Body	92	15.6%
Culture and Beliefs	83	14.0%
Animals and Insects	77	13.0%
Physical World	75	12.7%
Plants and Fruits	70	11.8%
Physical Activities	59	10.0%
Human Traits, Dimensions, Time, Direction, Taste, and Physical Characteristics	51	8.6%
Social Relations	33	5.6%
Tools and Equipments	30	5.1%
Parts of the House	21	3.6%
Total	591	100%

.

The Higaonon mobile dictionary application is implemented with offline functionality as a strategic linguistic safeguard for the Higaonon community. This technological intervention effectively restricts access by non-community members who might otherwise acquire language proficiency to fraudulently claim community affiliation, potentially facilitating the unauthorized acquisition of portions of ancestral territorial domains.

The cultural dimension emerged during community consultations, where tribal elders expressed concerns about potential misuse of linguistic knowledge. These concerns reflect documented patterns across the Philippines where individuals have fraudulently claimed indigenous identity to gain access to ancestral domain rights, educational benefits, or political positions reserved for indigenous peoples [43]. The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997 grants specific land rights and cultural protections to recognized indigenous communities, making authentic cultural identity legally and economically significant. Community elders noted that while language proficiency alone does not constitute indigenous identity, it can be leveraged by outsiders to appear more credible in false claims of community membership.

While offline functionality cannot completely prevent language access by non-community members, it creates an additional barrier that requires direct community contact for app acquisition and use. This design choice reflects the community’s desire to maintain some level of control over how their linguistic heritage is accessed and used, balancing language preservation goals with cultural protection concerns. The tribal council viewed this approach as one layer of protection among many needed to safeguard their cultural intellectual property rights.

The application incorporates multilingual search functionality as its primary feature, enabling users to query terms across Higaonon, Filipino, Cebuano, and English linguistic interfaces (Figure 4). The system architecture limits search result displays to five matching entries per query to optimize the user experience. Selection of an individual lexical item activates a modal interface that presents comprehensive linguistic data (Figure 5). All lexicographic content adheres to the Standardized Entry Format for Higaonon Language Documentation, thereby ensuring methodological consistency and academic rigor in the representation of linguistic data.

In addition, the mobile dictionary application includes a responsive, closable side navigation menu (Figure 6) containing Home, Favorites, and About sections. This provides intuitive access to the application’s core functions while maintaining a clean, uncluttered interface. The Favorites section (Figure 7) displays a personalized list of entries that users have selected by tapping the heart icon accompanying each dictionary entry. This allows users to quickly access frequently referenced terms and create a customized collection of Higaonon vocabulary relevant to their specific needs or interests.

4.2. Evaluation Results

The evaluation of the Diksyunaryong Kultural ng Higaonon Mobile App yielded consistently high ratings across all assessment dimensions. As presented in

Table 4. App evaluation summary by dimension.

Dimension	Mean	Std. Dev.	Interpretation
Functionality	4.81	0.33	Excellent
Usability	4.63	0.42	Excellent
Performance	4.73	0.40	Excellent
Overall	4.73	0.33	Excellent

, the overall satisfaction score achieved 4.73 out of 5.0 (SD = 0.33), demonstrating substantial user endorsement of the application’s quality and functionality. This level of satisfaction aligns with established benchmarks for successful mobile applications, where scores above 4.0 typically indicate high user acceptance [44].

4.2.1. Overall Evaluation Results

Almost all of the participants (96.7%) expressed positive satisfaction with the application, rating it either “Satisfied” or “Very Satisfied.” A great majority of the users (76.7%) were “Very Satisfied” (rating ≥ 4.5), and 20.0% were “Satisfied” (rating 4.0–4.49). Only one person (3.3%) gave a “Neutral” rating, and no one reported being dissatisfied. These satisfaction levels are higher than typical mobile app satisfaction rates of 70–80% [35].

Among the three dimensions tested, Functionality scored highest (Mean = 4.81, SD = 0.33), showing the app met user needs very well. Performance came second (Mean = 4.73, SD = 0.40), followed by Usability (Mean = 4.63, SD = 0.42). All three dimensions scored consistently high, indicating the app works well in all important areas. These scores exceed the minimum requirements for mobile health apps, which need to be scored at least 4.0 for functionality and 3.5 for usability [45,46].

When examining individual features (

Table 5. Dimension scores by question category.

Functionality
Question	Description	Mean	Std. Dev.	Agreement Rate
Q5	Offline access	4.93	0.25	100%
Q7	Favorites feature	4.83	0.45	96.7%
Q3	Quick word finding	4.80	0.40	100%
Q6	Word suggestions	4.77	0.42	100%
Q4	Relevant search results	4.73	0.51	96.7%
Overall Functionality		4.81	0.33	98.7%
Usability
Question	Description	Mean	Std. Dev.	Agreement Rate
Q10	Search bar placement	4.83	0.37	100%
Q11	Navigation between words	4.70	0.46	100%
Q8	Intuitive interface	4.50	0.72	93.3%
Q9	Font readability	4.50	0.67	90%
Overall Usability		4.63	0.42	95.8%
Performance
Question	Description	Mean	Std. Dev.	Agreement Rate
Q14	App stability	4.77	0.42	100%
Q13	Scrolling smoothness	4.73	0.51	96.7%
Q12	App loading speed	4.70	0.46	100%
Overall Performance		4.73	0.40	98.9%

), the app’s offline access feature was rated highest (Mean = 4.93, SD = 0.25), with all participants agreeing it worked well (93.3% strongly agreed, 6.7% agreed). This shows how important offline access is for a dictionary app, especially in areas with poor internet. The Favorites feature (Mean = 4.83, SD = 0.45) and Search bar placement (Mean = 4.83, SD = 0.37) were also highly rated, with most users strongly agreeing they were useful and well-designed. Other top-rated features included quick word search (Mean = 4.80), spelling suggestions (Mean = 4.77), and app stability (Mean = 4.77), reflecting functional effectiveness as well as technical reliability. Notably, most features received “Strongly Agree” ratings from more than 75% of users. Even the lowest-rated features—interface intuitiveness and font readability (Mean = 4.50 each)—were evaluated positively, with over 90% of participants agreeing they were satisfactory. Overall, these results surpass the 70% satisfaction benchmark commonly cited for successful educational applications [47].

4.2.2. Comparison Higaonon and Non-Higaonon Results

The evaluation results (

Table 6. Dimension-level comparison.

Dimension	Higaonon Mean (SD)	Non-Higaonon Mean (SD)	Difference	Key Observations
Functionality	4.71 (0.41)	4.92 (0.16)	0.21	Smallest gap between groups; highest rated dimension for Higaonon users
Usability	4.43 (0.44)	4.83 (0.28)	0.40	Lowest rated dimension for both groups; moderate gap between groups
Performance	4.47 (0.42)	5.00 (0.00)	0.53	Largest gap between groups; unanimous perfect scores from non-Higaonon users
Overall	4.56 (0.37)	4.91 (0.13)	0.35	Moderate gap; integrates all dimensions

) showed clear differences in how Higaonon and non-Higaonon users rated the app. The biggest difference appeared in Performance ratings (0.53 points), where non-Higaonon users all gave perfect scores (Mean = 5.00, SD = 0.00), while Higaonon users gave more varied ratings (Mean = 4.47, SD = 0.42). This matches previous research indicating that native speakers tend to be more critical when evaluating language technology, likely due to their deeper understanding of the language and culture [48].

Research on cross-cultural usability assessment consistently demonstrates that cultural outsiders tend to provide more lenient evaluations than insiders when assessing culturally specific technologies [49]. Non-Higaonon users likely approached the application as observers of an unfamiliar cultural artifact, focusing primarily on technical functionality rather than cultural authenticity or linguistic accuracy. This aligns with established findings that users with limited domain knowledge often emphasize surface-level usability features while lacking the expertise to identify deeper functional or cultural inadequacies.

Both groups gave Usability their lowest ratings, though satisfaction remained high overall. Non-Higaonon users rated it higher (Mean = 4.83, SD = 0.28) than Higaonon users (Mean = 4.43, SD = 0.44). For Functionality, the difference between groups was smallest (0.21 points), and this was the feature Higaonon users liked most (Mean = 4.71, SD = 0.41), suggesting they were most satisfied with the app’s core features.

Overall, non-Higaonon users gave higher ratings across all dimensions, with a 0.35-point difference in total satisfaction. Their ratings also showed less variation (SD = 0.13) compared to Higaonon users (SD = 0.37). These findings support research on cross-cultural technology assessment, which shows that cultural insiders often give more nuanced evaluations than outsiders [49]. While both groups rated the app positively, Higaonon speakers appeared to apply more detailed evaluation criteria, particularly for performance and usability features.

Statistical analysis reveals that improving font readability (difference: 0.73) and optimizing app performance on devices used in Higaonon communities (differences: 0.47–0.60) should be top priorities for enhancement, as shown in

Table 7. Prioritized recommendations based on statistical analysis.

Priority	Recommendation	Implementation Suggestion
High	Improve font readability for Higaonon users	Select fonts that better represent Higaonon characters and increase font size options
High	Optimize app performance on devices commonly used by Higaonon community	Reduce app size; optimize image loading; implement progressive loading; minimize memory usage
Medium	Enhance search bar functionality	Improve search algorithm for partial matches; add search filters; enhance search term suggestions
Medium	Refine “Favorites” feature	Add categorization options for favorites; implement sync across devices; add note-taking capability within favorites
Medium	Improve navigation between words	Implement better back-forward navigation; add browsing history; improve related words linking
Medium	Enhance scrolling experience	Optimize scroll performance; implement smoother scrolling physics; reduce content jumping during scroll
Low	Improve offline access capabilities	Further reduce offline dictionary size; implement selective content download; improve offline search capability
Low	Enhance word suggestions when mistyping	Improve spell-check algorithms specific to Higaonon language patterns; add common misspelling database

. Development efforts should focus on typography that properly displays Higaonon characters and on reducing loading times across various devices. Medium-priority improvements include enhancing search functions, refining the “Favorites” feature (difference: 0.33), and addressing navigation and scrolling issues reported by native speakers. Lower-priority areas include expanding offline features (already highly rated at 4.87) and improving spelling suggestions (minor difference: 0.20). The recommended approach balances potential impact with development complexity, emphasizing continuous involvement of native Higaonon speakers to ensure the app remains culturally and linguistically appropriate.

4.3. Discussion

4.3.1. Cultural and Technical Integration

The application’s design demonstrates successful integration of cultural authenticity with technical functionality. The unanimous approval of offline access (100% agreement rate) validates the community’s priorities for both practical connectivity needs and cultural protection concerns. The multilingual search capability addresses the linguistic reality of Higaonon speakers who navigate multiple language systems daily, supporting natural code-switching patterns observed in the community.

The comparative evaluation between native and non-native users provides critical insights into culturally responsive technology assessment. Native speakers’ more critical evaluations, particularly regarding font readability and performance optimization, highlight their deeper engagement with linguistic authenticity and cultural representation. These differences underscore the importance of centering indigenous perspectives throughout development processes rather than relying solely on external validation.

4.3.2. Implications for Indigenous Language Technology

This study provides empirical evidence that community-driven, user-centered approaches can produce technically sound applications that meet both functional and cultural requirements. The high satisfaction scores across all evaluation dimensions (overall mean of 4.73/5.0) indicate that participatory design processes can effectively balance technological constraints with community needs. Beyond its dictionary functionality, the application also serves as a digital repository of cultural knowledge embedded in language. Its systematic organization across ten semantic domains reflects community priorities and cultural categories, demonstrating how technology can preserve not only vocabulary but also the cultural concepts and worldviews that shape it.

The findings further suggest that culturally responsive approaches to digital technology development can support endangered language preservation while respecting community priorities. The application’s offline functionality illustrates how technical design decisions can address practical connectivity limitations while also serving as a safeguard for cultural intellectual property.

By simultaneously functioning as a practical tool and a cultural repository, the application highlights the need to conceptualize indigenous language technologies beyond mere utility. The organization of content according to culturally defined semantic domains, together with the integration of cultural symbolism in interface design, provides a model for how digital tools can embody and transmit cultural knowledge systems rather than merely storing linguistic data.

Finally, this study contributes to understanding how different stakeholder groups experience culturally specific technologies. The more critical evaluations provided by native speakers underscore the importance of centering community perspectives throughout the development process, while external stakeholder feedback offers complementary insights that can further refine design decisions.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

This study contributes to the growing body of research on indigenous language preservation through digital technologies by developing and evaluating a mobile dictionary application for the Higaonon language. The findings demonstrate that strategically designed mobile applications can support language revitalization while honoring indigenous knowledge systems and cultural practices. The Higaonon dictionary integrates linguistic documentation with user-friendly mobile technology, creating an accessible tool for both community members and external stakeholders. High evaluation scores across all dimensions (overall mean of 4.73/5.0) confirm that the application meets its intended purpose while addressing users’ practical needs. Particularly noteworthy is the unanimous approval of the offline access feature (100% agreement), which responds to both technological constraints in indigenous communities and cultural concerns about linguistic intellectual property protection.

At the same time, several limitations must be acknowledged. The small sample size (n = 30) limits generalizability, and the use of convenience sampling prevents broader population inferences. The evaluation emphasized initial user satisfaction rather than long-term learning outcomes or sustained adoption, and the absence of formal statistical testing means observed group differences should be interpreted descriptively rather than seen as statistically significant.

The comparative analysis between Higaonon and non-Higaonon users revealed meaningful differences in how stakeholder groups experienced the application. Native speakers provided more varied and critical feedback—particularly on font readability and performance optimization—reflecting their deeper engagement with linguistic authenticity and cultural representation. These findings underscore the importance of inclusive design processes that center indigenous perspectives rather than relying primarily on external validation.

Beyond serving as a functional dictionary, the application acts as a digital repository of cultural knowledge embedded in language. The integration of cultural symbolism in interface design and the documentation of contextual word usage support preservation not only of vocabulary but also of associated cultural concepts and practices. This holistic approach reflects indigenous educational philosophies that view language as inseparable from cultural identity and worldview.

Building on the evaluation findings, this study proposes a phased roadmap for continued development:

Phase 1 (3–6 months): Focus on technical refinements, including improved font rendering with adjustable sizing, performance optimization for entry-level devices, and enhancements to navigation and scrolling responsiveness. Follow-up testing with original participants should validate these improvements.

Phase 2 (6–12 months): Emphasize content expansion by adding specialized cultural and ecological terminology, audio pronunciations recorded by community elders, and richer example sentences. This phase requires deeper community engagement and may involve additional funding.

Phase 3 (12–18 months): Prioritize community integration through elder engagement protocols, pilot integration with indigenous education programs, community-led maintenance procedures, and extended usage studies to assess long-term adoption.

Phase 4 (18–24 months): Document replicable methodologies, conduct broader evaluations with larger and more diverse samples, assess language learning outcomes, and explore partnerships to extend the approach to other endangered languages.

This roadmap balances resource constraints with concrete directions for sustainable advancement, emphasizing community ownership and respect for indigenous self-determination.

To ensure long-term sustainability, capacity-building initiatives should be implemented among Higaonon youth to develop the skills necessary for managing and updating the digital content. Moreover, application updates must consistently follow established protocols to maintain compatibility, security, and reliability over time.

Future research should address the study’s limitations through larger-scale evaluations, longitudinal designs, and more robust statistical analyses. Examining actual language learning outcomes, adoption patterns, and sustainability models would provide deeper insights into the application’s role in language revitalization. Overall, the study offers proof-of-concept evidence and a methodological foundation for culturally responsive indigenous language technologies, demonstrating that technical design can advance linguistic preservation while safeguarding cultural integrity.