The Performance Comparison of Socioeconomic and Behavioural Factors as Predictors of Higher Blood Lead Levels of 0–6-Year-Old Chinese Children between 2004 and 2014
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Questionnaire
2.3. Blood Lead Concentration Laboratory Tests
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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2004 | 2014 | p Value # | |
---|---|---|---|
N (%) | N (%) | ||
Total | 13,852 (100) | 14,120 (100) | |
Sex | |||
Female | 6173 (44.56) | 6442 (45.62) | 0.0799 |
Age | <0.0001 | ||
0– | 1316 (9.50) | 1366 (9.67) | |
1– | 1083 (7.82) | 1397 (9.89) | |
2– | 1686 (12.17) | 1363 (9.65) | |
3– | 3092 (22.32) | 2679 (18.97) | |
4– | 2958 (21.35) | 3181 (22.53) | |
5– | 2662 (19.22) | 2723 (19.28) | |
6–7 | 1055 (7.62) | 1411 (9.99) | |
Father’s education | <0.0001 | ||
College graduate or beyond | 8026 (58.59) | 9574 (68.02) | |
High school graduate | 4106 (29.98) | 3327 (23.63) | |
Junior high school or lower | 1566 (11.43) | 1175 (8.35) | |
Blood lead concentration (GM (95% CI), μg/L) | 46.76 (46.21, 47.33) | 33.37 (33.05, 33.70) | <0.0001 * |
Percentage ≥ 50 μg/L (%) | 52.53 | 22.90 | <0.0001 |
Percentage ≥ 100 μg/L (%) | 10.17 | 1.14 | <0.0001 |
Factors | 2004 | 2014 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | Adjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||||||
% | GM (95% CI) | Change, % | GM (95% CI) | Change, % | % | GM (95% CI) | Change, % | GM (95% CI) | Change, % | |
Sex | ||||||||||
Female | 44.59 | 44.73 (43.93, 45.54) a | - | 47.96 (45.97, 50.03) a | - | 45.63 | 33.54 (33.07, 34.02) a | -. | 42.71 (40.87, 44.64) a | - |
Male | 55.41 | 48.45 (47.68, 49.23) b | 8.32 | 51.78 (49.69, 53.97) b | 7.96 | 54.37 | 33.23 (32.79, 33.67) a | −0.92 | 42.31 (40.52, 44.19) a | −0.94 |
Age | ||||||||||
0– | 9.50 | 37.52 (36.00, 39.11) a | - | 41.46 (39.13, 43.92) a | 9.67 | 30.22 (29.10, 31.39) a | - | 38.31 (36.28, 40.46) a | ||
1– | 7.82 | 44.85 (43.19, 46.57) b | 19.54 | 47.83 (45.09, 50.72) b | 15.36 | 9.89 | 31.69 (30.60, 32.83) a | 4.86 | 40.18 (38.13, 42.35) a | 4.88 |
2– | 12.17 | 46.07 (44.59, 47.59) c | 22.79 | 48.39 (45.96, 50.95) b | 16.71 | 9.65 | 31.81 (30.80, 32.86) a | 5.26 | 40.70 (38.62, 42.90) a | 6.24 |
3– | 22.32 | 46.68 (45.51, 47.88) c | 24.41 | 49.85 (47.60, 52.21) b | 20.24 | 18.97 | 33.89 (33.20, 34.61) a | 12.14 | 43.99 (41.99, 46.07) b | 14.83 |
4– | 21.35 | 46.75 (45.54, 48.00) c | 24.6 | 49.40 (47.20, 51.70) b | 19.15 | 22.53 | 34.40 (33.80, 35.01) b | 13.83 | 45.15 (43.12, 47.28) b | 17.85 |
5– | 19.22 | 49.73 (48.35, 51.15) d | 32.54 | 53.46 (51.03, 56.01) c | 28.94 | 19.28 | 34.00 (33.27, 34.74) b | 12.51 | 44.52 (42.50, 46.64) b | 16.21 |
6–7 | 7.62 | 56.65 (54.59, 58.79) e | 50.99 | 60.42 (56.98, 64.06) d | 45.73 | 9.99 | 35.35 (34.28, 36.46) c | 16.98 | 45.31 (43.11, 47.62) b | 18.27 |
Father’s education | ||||||||||
College graduate or beyond | 58.59 | 45.32 (44.62, 46.04) a | - | 48.09 (46.07, 50.20) a | 68.02 | 32.24 (31.87, 32.62) a | - | 40.04 (38.32, 41.84) a | ||
High school graduate | 29.98 | 48.54 (47.47, 49.64) b | 7.11 | 50.57 (48.43, 52.80) b | 5.16 | 23.64 | 34.70 (34.03, 35.38) b | 7.63 | 41.49 (39.67, 43.40) b | 3.62 |
Junior high school or lower | 11.43 | 49.36 (47.69, 51.10) b | 8.91 | 50.89 (48.36, 53.55) b | 5.82 | 8.35 | 39.38 (37.98, 40.85) c | 22.15 | 46.26 (43.93, 48.71) c | 15.53 |
Distance from residence to main road | ||||||||||
Far from the main road | 35.89 | 46.24 (45.31, 47.19) a | - | 49.36 (47.24, 51.58) a | 38.78 | 31.40 (30.86, 31.94) a | - | 39.30 (37.56, 41.13) a | ||
Separated by 2 buildings | 17.84 | 45.75 (44.48, 47.05) a | −1.06 | 49.41 (47.09, 51.85) a | 0.1 | 15.63 | 33.66 (32.91, 34.42) b | 7.2 | 42.09 (40.10, 44.17) b | 7.1 |
Separated by 1 building | 14.90 | 46.06 (44.57, 47.59) a | −0.39 | 48.88 (46.52, 51.36) a | −0.97 | 19.77 | 34.46 (33.80, 35.13) bc | 9.75 | 43.59 (41.60, 45.67) b | 10.92 |
Separated by roadside green belt | 13.68 | 47.06 (45.55, 48.61) a | 1.77 | 50.60 (48.10, 53.23) a | 2.51 | 12.22 | 35.38 (34.52, 36.27) c | 12.68 | 44.68 (42.52, 46.95) c | 13.69 |
Facing the street | 17.69 | 47.91 (46.57, 49.29) a | 3.61 | 50.94 (48.62, 53.38) a | 3.2 | 13.60 | 35.60 (34.66, 36.57) c | 13.38 | 43.12 (41.10, 45.24) b | 9.72 |
Peeling-off wall and paint in the room | ||||||||||
No | 80.53 | 46.70 (46.08, 47.32) a | - | 50.43 (48.34, 52.60) a | 84.20 | 32.97 (32.62, 33.32) a | - | 42.09 (40.28, 43.99) a | ||
Yes | 19.47 | 46.68 (45.35, 48.04) a | −0.04 | 49.24 (47.11, 51.48) a | −2.36 | 15.80 | 35.61 (34.80, 36.44) b | 8.01 | 42.94 (41.02, 44.96) a | 2.02 |
Peeling-off furniture paint in the room | ||||||||||
No | 92.40 | 46.45 (45.86, 47.05) a | - | 49.59 (47.71, 51.54) a | 89.99 | 33.13 (32.8, 33.47) a | - | 41.72 (40.01, 43.51) a | ||
Yes | 7.60 | 47.79 (45.95, 49.70) a | 2.88 | 50.08 (47.55, 52.73) a | 0.99 | 10.01 | 36.49 (35.2, 37.82) b | 10.14 | 43.32 (41.15, 45.61) a | 3.84 |
Having Chinese traditional medicine | ||||||||||
Less than 2 times per year | 66.43 | 46.20 (45.51, 46.90) a | - | 49.01 (47.08, 51.03) a | 78.61 | 32.66 (32.30, 33.02) a | - | 39.92 (38.27, 41.64) a | ||
1−2 times per month | 25.88 | 47.62 (46.52, 48.75) a | 3.07 | 49.59 (47.49, 51.78) a | 1.18 | 15.97 | 34.94 (34.14, 35.77) b | 6.98 | 41.28 (39.41, 43.24) b | 3.41 |
More than once per week | 7.70 | 48.55 (46.59, 50.58) a | 5.09 | 50.92 (48.09, 53.91) a | 2.68 | 5.41 | 39.61 (38.00, 41.29) c | 21.28 | 46.63 (44.07, 49.34) c | 16.81 |
Father’s occupation having contact with lead | ||||||||||
No | 82.73 | 46.24 (45.64, 46.86) b | - | 49.29 (47.24, 51.42) a | 87.24 | 32.59 (32.25, 32.93) a | - | 40.01 (38.18, 41.93) a | ||
Yes | 17.27 | 48.94 (47.52, 50.40) a | 5.84 | 50.38 (48.17, 52.70) a | 2.21 | 12.76 | 39.17 (38.18, 40.20) b | 20.19 | 45.17 (43.19, 47.25) b | 12.9 |
Mother’s occupation having contact with lead | ||||||||||
No | 94.52 | 46.57 (46,00, 47.15) a | - | 49.33 (47.66, 51.05) a | 96.37 | 33.15 (32.82, 33.48) a | - | 41.81 (40.27, 43.41) a | ||
Yes | 5.48 | 48.95 (46.37, 51.68) a | 5.11 | 50.34 (47.42, 53.45) a | 2.05 | 3.63 | 39.61 (37.92, 41.38) b | 19.49 | 43.23 (40.62, 46.02) a | 3.4 |
Whether children often suck fingers | ||||||||||
No | 69.23 | 46.74 (46.07, 47.43) a | - | 49.68 (47.65, 51.79) a | 72.35 | 32.99 (32.63, 33.35) a | - | 41.60 (39.79, 43.50) a | ||
Yes | 30.77 | 46.53 (45.54, 47.55) a | −0.45 | 49.99 (47.89, 52.18) a | 0.62 | 27.65 | 34.40 (33.71, 35.10) b | 4.27 | 43.45 (41.58, 45.40) b | 4.45 |
Pica | ||||||||||
No | 86.01 | 46.21 (45.61, 46.81) b | - | 49.42 (47.50, 51.42) a | 96.64 | 33.25 (32.93, 33.58) a | - | 41.51 (40.05, 43.02) a | ||
Yes | 13.99 | 49.77 (48.23, 51.36) a | 7.7 | 50.24 (47.88, 52.72) a | 1.66 | 3.36 | 37.16 (35.34, 39.06) b | 11.76 | 43.54 (40.93, 46.32) a | 4.89 |
Whether children often bite stationery | ||||||||||
No | 65.65 | 45.28 (44.62, 45.95) b | - | 49.38 (47.25, 51.60) a | 91.25 | 33.07 (32.74, 33.41) a | - | 42.00 (40.25, 43.82) a | ||
Yes | 34.35 | 49.64 (48.61, 50.69) a | 9.63 | 50.29 (48.28, 52.39) a | 1.84 | 8.75 | 36.77 (35.61, 37.97) b | 11.19 | 43.04 (40.94, 45.24) a | 2.48 |
Whether children often bite toys | ||||||||||
No | 89.76 | 45.96 (45.38, 46.55) b | - | 47.99 (46.18, 49.88) a | 83.02 | 32.83 (32.48, 33.18) a | - | 40.93 (39.15, 42.79) a | ||
Yes | 10.24 | 53.45 (51.57, 55.40) a | 16.3 | 51.74 (49.12, 54.51) b | 7.81 | 16.98 | 36.18 (35.35, 37.03) b | 10.2 | 44.16 (42.20, 46.21) b | 7.89 |
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Xie, Y.; Dai, Y.; Li, T. The Performance Comparison of Socioeconomic and Behavioural Factors as Predictors of Higher Blood Lead Levels of 0–6-Year-Old Chinese Children between 2004 and 2014. Children 2022, 9, 802. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9060802
Xie Y, Dai Y, Li T. The Performance Comparison of Socioeconomic and Behavioural Factors as Predictors of Higher Blood Lead Levels of 0–6-Year-Old Chinese Children between 2004 and 2014. Children. 2022; 9(6):802. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9060802
Chicago/Turabian StyleXie, Yixuan, Yaohua Dai, and Tao Li. 2022. "The Performance Comparison of Socioeconomic and Behavioural Factors as Predictors of Higher Blood Lead Levels of 0–6-Year-Old Chinese Children between 2004 and 2014" Children 9, no. 6: 802. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9060802