Associations between Parenting Style and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents Aged 11–17 Years: Results of the KiGGS Cohort Study (Second Follow-Up)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. State of Research
1.1.1. Parenting Style Research
1.1.2. Mental Health of Children and Adolescents
1.1.3. Associations between Parenting Style and Mental Health among Children and Adolescents
1.2. Aim of This Study and Research Questions
- Do the parenting styles of mothers and fathers differ by the children’s and adolescents’ gender and age, SES, migration status, and family status?
- Are there associations between the parenting style of mothers and fathers and their children’s and adolescents’ mental health?
- Do the associations between mother’s and father’s parenting styles and children’s and adolescents’ mental health persist when controlled for SES, migration status, and family status?
- Do the associations between children’s and adolescents’ mental health and mother’s and father’s parenting styles differ by SES or migration status?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Variables
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mother | Father | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
n (unweigh.) | % (weigh.) | n (unweigh.) | % (weigh.) | |
Total (Before Exclusion of Cases) | 4596 | 4596 | ||
Excluded (Missing Data) | 313 | 595 | ||
Excluded (Parent Did Not Live in the Same Household) | 182 | 510 | ||
Total (for Analysis) | 4101 | 3491 | ||
Parenting Styles | ||||
Authoritative | 1654 | 38.9 | 1256 | 34.7 |
Emotional Distancing | 690 | 17.5 | 431 | 13.1 |
Demanding-Controlling | 679 | 17.8 | 813 | 24.8 |
Permissive | 1078 | 25.8 | 991 | 27.5 |
Gender | ||||
Boys | 1958 | 50.1 | 1659 | 50.2 |
Girls | 2143 | 49.9 | 1832 | 49.8 |
Age Group, Years | ||||
11–13 | 1784 | 40.9 | 1525 | 41.0 |
14–17 | 2317 | 59.1 | 1966 | 59.0 |
Socioeconomic Status | ||||
Low | 444 | 17.5 | 360 | 16.6 |
Middle | 2713 | 63.7 | 2246 | 62.2 |
High | 928 | 18.8 | 872 | 21.2 |
Missing | 16 | 13 | ||
Migration Status | ||||
No Migration Background | 3369 | 73.4 | 2857 | 72.7 |
One-Sided Migration Background | 322 | 9.8 | 267 | 9.8 |
Two-Sided Migration Background | 383 | 16.8 | 344 | 17.5 |
Missing | 27 | 23 | ||
Family Status (Living Together with Both Biological Parents in the Same Household) | ||||
Yes | 3264 | 78.8 | 3251 | 93.8 |
No | 837 | 21.2 | 240 | 6.2 |
Missing | 0 | 0 | ||
Mother’s Status (Mother in Household) | ||||
Biological Mother | 4096 | 99.9 | 3433 | 99.9 |
Stepmother | 5 | 0.1 | 5 | 0.1 |
Missing | 0 | 53 | ||
Father’s Status (Father in Household) | ||||
Biological Father | 3321 | 96.6 | 3362 | 96.7 |
Stepfather | 129 | 3.4 | 129 | 3.3 |
Missing | 651 | 0 | ||
n (unweigh.) | M (SD) | n (unweigh.) | M (SD) | |
SDQ Total Difficulties Score | ||||
Total | 4071 | 7.33 (0.11) | 3468 | 7.08 (0.12) |
Missing | 30 | 23 |
Mother’s Parenting Style: Boys | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Authoritative | Emotional Distancing | Demanding-Controlling | Permissive | |
Total | 38.5 | 18.3 | 19.2 | 24.1 |
(35.8–41.3) | (16.2–20.5) | (16.9–21.8) | (21.9–26.4) | |
Age Group, Years | ||||
11–13 | 51.7 | 11.3 | 21.0 | 16.1 |
(47.3–56.0) | (8.6–14.7) | (17.6–24.8) | (13.3–19.4) | |
14–17 | 29.6 | 23.0 | 18.0 | 29.4 |
(26.4–33.1) | (20.2–26.0) | (15.0–21.4) | (26.2–32.8) | |
Socioeconomic Status | ||||
Low | 41.0 | 21.1 | 25.5 | 12.3 |
(33.8–48.7) | (15.6–28.0) | (18.4–34.3) | (8.2–18.1) | |
Middle | 37.7 | 18.0 | 19.3 | 25.0 |
(34.3–41.3) | (15.4–20.9) | (16.7–22.1) | (22.3–34.0) | |
High | 37.9 | 16.6 | 12.7 | 32.9 |
(33.4–42.6) | (13.2–20.5) | (9.3–17.0) | (28.5–37.6) | |
Migration Status (Migration Background) | ||||
No | 39.0 | 17.1 | 15.2 | 28.7 |
(34.9–42.2) | (14.8–19.7) | (13.0–17.8) | (26.0–31.5) | |
One-Sided | 39.1 | 16.0 | 27.0 | 18.0 |
(30.8–48.0) | (9.7–25.2) | (18.7–37.2) | (12.0–26.1) | |
Two-Sided | 35.8 | 24.2 | 29.9 | 10.1 |
(28.1–44.3) | (18.7–30.8) | (22.3–38.7) | (6.6–15.3) | |
Family Status (Living Together with Both Biological Parents) | ||||
Yes | 39.1 | 18.4 | 19.5 | 23.0 |
(36.0–42.3) | (16.0–21.1) | (16.8–22.5) | (20.7–25.5) | |
No | 36.1 | 17.5 | 18.1 | 28.3 |
(30.9–41.7) | (13.5–22.5) | (13.5–23.9) | (23.0–34.3) | |
Mother’s Parenting Style: Girls | ||||
Total | 39.2 | 16.8 | 16.3 | 27.6 |
(36.5–42.0) | (14.8–19.0) | (14.4–18.5) | (25.3–30.1) | |
Age Group, Years | ||||
11–13 | 48.3 | 14.3 | 14.4 | 23.1 |
(44.0–52.6) | (11.0–18.2) | (12.0–17.2) | (19.5–27.2) | |
14–17 | 32.8 | 18.7 | 17.7 | 30.9 |
(29.7–36.0) | (16.1–21.5) | (15.1–20.7) | (27.6–34.3) | |
Socioeconomic Status | ||||
Low | 34.9 | 23.2 | 20.9 | 21.0 |
(26.5–44.4) | (17.0–30.7) | (15.0–28.4) | (14.9–28.8) | |
Middle | 38.8 | 17.0 | 15.3 | 28.8 |
(35.6–42.1) | (14.6–19.7) | (13.0–17.9) | (26.0–31.9) | |
High | 42.4 | 11.7 | 14.9 | 31.0 |
(37.4–47.6) | (8.8–15.4) | (11.7–18.9) | (26.6–35.7) | |
Migration Status (Migration Background) | ||||
No | 39.6 | 15.8 | 13.5 | 31.1 |
(37.0–42.3) | (13.7–18.2) | (11.4–15.8) | (28.5–33.8) | |
One-Sided | 34.0 | 23.4 | 18.6 | 24.0 |
(26.5–42.4) | (17.0–31.2) | (12.9–26.1) | (16.6–33.3) | |
Two-Sided | 39.4 | 18.3 | 28.7 | 13.7 |
(30.8–48.7) | (12.5–26.0) | (21.7–36.8) | (8.4–21.6) | |
Family Status (Living Together with Both Biological Parents) | ||||
Yes | 40.1 | 15.2 | 17.0 | 27.7 |
(36.9–43.3) | (13.1–17.6) | (14.8–19.5) | (24.2–30.3) | |
No | 36.1 | 22.7 | 13.8 | 27.4 |
(30.9–41.7) | (17.7–28.6) | (10.1–18.6) | (22.1–33.5) |
Father’s Parenting Style: Boys | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Authoritative | Emotional Distancing | Demanding-Controlling | Permissive | |
Total | 33.8 | 12.3 | 27.9 | 26.0 |
(30.9–36.8) | (10.5–14.4) | (25.2–30.7) | (23.4–28.8) | |
Age Group, Years | ||||
11–13 | 45.9 | 8.2 | 29.1 | 16.7 |
(41.2–50.7) | (5.9–11.3) | (24.7–34.1) | (13.5–20.5) | |
14–17 | 25.3 | 15.2 | 27.0 | 32.5 |
(21.6–29.4) | (12.7–18.1) | (23.5–30.7) | (28.9–36.4) | |
Socioeconomic Status | ||||
Low | 29.2 | 11.6 | 40.5 | 18.8 |
(20.9–39.1) | (6.8–18.9) | (32.2–49.4) | (12.3–27.5) | |
Middle | 35.4 | 13.1 | 27.0 | 24.5 |
(32.2–38.8) | (10.5–16.2) | (23.7–30.6) | (21.5–27.8) | |
High | 32.9 | 10.8 | 19.6 | 36.8 |
(28.2–37.9) | (7.9–14.6) | (14.9–25.5) | (31.3–42.6) | |
Migration Status (Migration Background) | ||||
No | 35.9 | 12.7 | 22.1 | 29.4 |
(32.7–39.2) | (10.5–15.2) | (19.3–25.2) | (26.5–32.5) | |
One-Sided | 28.7 | 13.3 | 32.3 | 25.6 |
(21.3–37.6) | (7.3–23.2) | (23.8–42.2) | (18.3–34.7) | |
Two-Sided | 29.6 | 10.4 | 45.6 | 14.4 |
(21.7–39.1) | (6.2–16.9) | (38.6–52.8) | (8.9–22.3) | |
Family Status (Living Together with Both Biological Parents) | ||||
Yes | 34.0 | 12.1 | 27.6 | 26.3 |
(31.0–37.1) | (10.3–14.3) | (24.8–30.5) | (23.7–29.1) | |
No | 31.1 | 15.3 | 32.4 | 21.1 |
(21.6–42.5) | (9.2–24.4) | (21.8–45.3) | (13.2–32.0) | |
Father’s Parenting Style: Girls | ||||
Total | 35.6 | 13.8 | 22.7 | 28.9 |
(32.9–38.3) | (11.9–16.0) | (19.5–24.2) | (26.5–31.5) | |
Age Group, Years | ||||
11–13 | 41.8 | 10.1 | 21.5 | 26.6 |
(37.6–46.2) | (7.5–13.4) | (18.1–25.3) | (22.9–30.6) | |
14–17 | 31.2 | 16.4 | 21.9 | 30.5 |
(27.9–34.7) | (13.8–19.4) | (19.0–25.1) | (27.1–34.2) | |
Socioeconomic Status | ||||
Low | 30.1 | 18.7 | 28.2 | 23.0 |
(22.9–38.5) | (13.0–26.0) | (20.6–37.2) | (16.6–31.0) | |
Middle | 36.5 | 14.2 | 20.0 | 29.3 |
(33.1–40.1) | (11.8–17.0) | (17.4–22.8) | (26.1–32.8) | |
High | 38.3 | 9.7 | 18.5 | 33.5 |
(33.1–43.8) | (7.0–13.3) | (14.4–23.5) | (29.1–38.3) | |
Migration Status (Migration Background) | ||||
No | 36.7 | 13.7 | 18.4 | 31.1 |
(33.9–39.7) | (11.5–16.3) | (16.3–20.7) | (28.2–34.2) | |
One-sided | 36.3 | 13.6 | 23.6 | 26.5 |
(27.1–46.6) | (8.6–20.9) | (16.4–32.8) | (18.4–36.6) | |
Two-sided | 28.7 | 14.3 | 35.5 | 21.6 |
(21.4–37.3) | (9.3–21.4) | (27.4–44.6) | (15.3–29.6) | |
Family Status (Living Together with Both Biological Parents) | ||||
Yes | 35.5 | 13.9 | 22.0 | 28.6 |
(32.8–38.2) | (11.9–16.1) | (19.7–24.6) | (26.0–31.3) | |
No | 36.6 | 12.8 | 17.3 | 33.3 |
(26.0–48.6) | (7.0–22.2) | (11.4–25.4) | (24.5–43.6) |
Boys | Girls | Total | ||||
M (95% CI) | p-Value | M (95% CI) | p-Value | M (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Parenting Style: Mother | ||||||
Authoritative | 7.28 (6.86–7.70) | Ref. | 6.11 (5.69–6.54) | Ref. | 6.69 (6.39–7.00) | Ref. |
Emotional Distancing | 8.50 (7.66–9.35) | ** | 8.70 (7.92–9.48) | *** | 8.60 (8.04–9.16) | *** |
Demanding–Controlling | 9.60 (8.89–10.32) | *** | 8.71 (7.97–9.44) | *** | 9.19 (8.70–9.69) | *** |
Permissive | 6.26 (5.72–6.80) | ** | 6.03 (5.55–6.51) | n.s. | 6.14 (5.77–6.50) | * |
Parenting Style: Father | ||||||
Authoritative | 6.83 (6.36–7.30) | Ref. | 5.87 (5.45–6.29) | Ref. | 6.34 (6.01–6.67) | Ref. |
Emotional Distancing | 8.96 (7.72–10.20) | *** | 8.18 (7.38–8.99) | *** | 8.55 (7.83–9.26) | *** |
Demanding-Controlling | 8.90 (8.18–9.62) | *** | 8.33 (7.65–9.00) | *** | 8.65 (8.13–9.17) | *** |
Permissive | 6.07 (5.60–6.55) | * | 5.75 (5.28–6.22) | n.s. | 5.90 (5.55–6.26) | n.s. |
Girls and Boys | Model 1 (Basic Model) | Model 2 (Fully Adjusted Model) | ||||
Coef. | 95%CI | p-Value | Coef. | 95%CI | p-Value | |
Parenting style: mother | ||||||
Authoritative | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
Emotional Distancing | 2.11 | (1.47–2.75) | *** | 1.95 | (1.33–2.58) | *** |
Demanding–Controlling | 2.61 | (2.05–3.16) | *** | 2.43 | (1.87–2.99) | *** |
Permissive | −0.36 | (−0.87–0.14) | n.s. | −0.26 | (−0.75–0.23) | n.s. |
constant | 7.12 | (6.77–7.46) | *** | 7.86 | (7.15–8.57) | *** |
Parenting Style: Father | ||||||
Authoritative | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
Emotional Distancing | 2.42 | (1.67–3.16) | *** | 2.41 | (1.69–3.13) | *** |
Demanding–Controlling | 2.40 | (1.78–3.02) | *** | 2.39 | (1.79–2.98) | *** |
Permissive | −0.25 | (−0.72–0.23) | n.s. | −0.07 | (−0.53–0.40) | n.s. |
constant | 6.76 | (6.37–7.16) | *** | 7.90 | (7.22–8.58) | *** |
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Azman, Ö.; Mauz, E.; Reitzle, M.; Geene, R.; Hölling, H.; Rattay, P. Associations between Parenting Style and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents Aged 11–17 Years: Results of the KiGGS Cohort Study (Second Follow-Up). Children 2021, 8, 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8080672
Azman Ö, Mauz E, Reitzle M, Geene R, Hölling H, Rattay P. Associations between Parenting Style and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents Aged 11–17 Years: Results of the KiGGS Cohort Study (Second Follow-Up). Children. 2021; 8(8):672. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8080672
Chicago/Turabian StyleAzman, Özge, Elvira Mauz, Matthias Reitzle, Raimund Geene, Heike Hölling, and Petra Rattay. 2021. "Associations between Parenting Style and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents Aged 11–17 Years: Results of the KiGGS Cohort Study (Second Follow-Up)" Children 8, no. 8: 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8080672