Carbohydrate Restriction with or without Exercise Training Improves Blood Pressure and Insulin Sensitivity in Overweight Women
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Study Design Overview
2.3. Diet Intervention
2.4. Exercise Intervention
2.5. Pre- and Post-Intervention Assessments
2.5.1. Blood Analysis
2.5.2. Resting Blood Pressure and Anthropometric Assessments
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Training Data
3.2. Adverse Events
3.3. Diet Compliance, Dietary Compositions and Daily Physical Activities
3.4. Results of Main Outcomes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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KD-HIIT | KD-MICT | |
---|---|---|
Weekly training time (min) | 12.5 | 150 |
Total training time (min) | 50 | 600 |
Energy expenditure (kcal) | 18.4 (2.4) ** | 155.1 (16.4) |
Training power (W) | 242.1 (24.3) ** | 53.2 (9.8) |
Intensity (%VO2peak) | 86.5 (9.0) ** | 63.2 (10.7) |
Training HR (bpm) | 146 (5) ** | 138 (8) |
Training HR/HRmax (%) | 82.1 (3.9) ** | 74.4 (2.6) |
Training RPE | 14 (1) ** | 11 (1) |
Pre Week 1 | Pre Week 2 | Week 1 | Week 2 | Week 3 | Week 4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy intake (kcal/d) | ||||||
LC-CON | 2038 (409.6) | 2069 (317.2) | 1917 (426.8) | 1756 (564.5) | 1823 (495.0) | 1908 (296.0) |
LC-HIIT | 2066 (362.9) | 2158 (312.3) | 1877 (381.0) | 1868 (274.2) | 1861 (358.2) | 1942 (420.5) |
LC-MICT | 2175 (411.3) | 1968 (535.8) | 2041 (437.6) | 2031 (536.8) | 1930 (456.2) | 1913 (440.6) |
Carbohydrate (in %) | ||||||
LC-CON | 44.6 (8.1) | 40.6 (11.7) | 10.4 (4.3) | 9.0 (3.6) | 7.7 (2.9) | 8.1 (5.6) |
LC-HIIT | 48.4 (7.5) | 44.9 (10.0) | 13.5 (8.0) | 11.7 (5.5) | 8.7 (5.4) | 7.4 (2.9) |
LC-MICT | 44.8 (9.5) | 45.7 (10.7) | 13.1 (8.3) | 10.0 (4.2) | 9.1 (2.9) | 8.8 (3.0) |
Carbohydrate (in g) | ||||||
LC-CON | 239.6 (80.8) | 208.6 (60.6) | 51.6 (26.8) | 38.3 (14.5) | 34.4 (12.9) | 37.8 (23.5) |
LC-HIIT | 278.6 (100.3) | 242.9 (64.9) | 55.6 (31.5) | 55.1 (27.4) | 43.2 (35.0) | 34.2 (13.9) |
LC-MICT | 241.0 (60.7) | 227.4 (88.3) | 62.9 (41.4) | 52.6 (29.6) | 43.6 (15.4) | 42.4 (18.3) |
Fat (in %) | ||||||
LC-CON | 38.8 (8.1) | 38.9 (9.7) | 68.8 (6.8) | 67.2 (5.2) | 68.5 (5.3) | 69.9 (5.8) |
LC-HIIT | 34.8 (5.4) | 37.1 (7.9) | 64.6 (8.1) | 63.8 (8.8) | 69.6 (7.5) | 68.8 (10.5) |
LC-MICT | 37.4 (8.9) | 35.3 (8.8) | 63.3 (8.6) | 64.5 (7.3) | 67.8 (6.1) | 68.0 (7.3) |
Fat (in g) | ||||||
LC-CON | 88.3 (14.8) | 95.0 (27.8) | 146.7 (36.5) | 131.6 (44.4) | 139.9 (44.4) | 149.0 (31.4) |
LC-HIIT | 87.0 (25.1) | 88.8 (21.2) | 123.6 (21.2) | 131.7 (22.7) | 143.0 (26.9) | 141.3 (39.2) |
LC-MICT | 91.4 (31.4) | 75.6 (22.1) | 145.6 (42.9) | 145.8 (41.4) | 145.6 (35.8) | 143.4 (29.8) |
Protein (in %) | ||||||
LC-CON | 15.9 (4.5) | 15.3 (2.2) | 22.1 (5.5) | 24.3 (4.9) | 24.3 (4.7) | 22.1 (4.6) |
LC-HIIT | 14.8 (2.1) | 15.4 (3.1) | 23.2 (5.6) | 23.8 (7.2) | 21.8 (4.7) | 23.6 (8.4) |
LC-MICT | 13.7 (2.3) | 14.8 (2.6) | 23.4 (5.3) | 24.9 (4.6) | 23.2 (5.3) | 23.3 (5.5) |
Protein (in g) | ||||||
LC-CON | 79.4 (23.2) | 81.3 (18.5) | 104.5 (31.6) | 106.6 (39.7) | 108.8 (27.2) | 104.6 (24.5) |
LC-HIIT | 83.4 (22.3) | 82.5 (18.8) | 100.1 (27.8) | 112.7 (41.2) | 101.0 (25.4) | 112.2 (49.8) |
LC-MICT | 74.1 (19.0) | 72.2 (21.1) | 118.7 (30.7) | 127.8 (45.4) | 112.0 (37.5) | 113.8 (46.3) |
LC-CON (n = 11) | LC-HIIT (n = 13) | LC-MICT (n = 12) | Time Effect | Interaction Effect (Time × Group) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | p | η2 | p | η2 | |
Age (y) | 21.6 (4.3) | 21.4 (2.9) | 21.8 (3.1) | |||||||
Height (cm) | 161.4 (4.1) | 163.5 (6.4) | 161.1 (4.4) | |||||||
Weight (kg) | 64.6 (9.3) | 62.1 (8.3) ^ | 66.7 (8.8) | 64.0 (8.3) ^ | 64.4 (6.7) | 61.9 (6.3) ^ | 0.000 | 0.772 | 0.902 | 0.006 |
BMI (kg·m−2) | 24.8 (3.3) | 23.8 (3.1) ^ | 24.8 (2.0) | 23.9 (1.9) ^ | 24.8 (1.9) | 23.8 (1.9) ^ | 0.000 | 0.782 | 0.946 | 0.003 |
SBP (mmHg) | 113 (11) | 108 (9) * | 111 (8) | 106 (13) * | 111 (8) | 106 (10) * | 0.000 | 0.370 | 0.973 | 0.002 |
DBP (mmHg) | 71 (9) | 69 (8) | 70 (6) | 66 (8) * | 71 (5) | 68 (9) | 0.005 | 0.212 | 0.564 | 0.034 |
MAP (mmHg) | 85 (9) | 82 (8) | 84 (6) | 79 (9) * | 84 (5) | 80 (9) * | 0.000 | 0.321 | 0.811 | 0.013 |
FG (mmol·L−1) | 4.8 (0.3) | 4.6 (0.5) | 4.8 (0.5) | 4.7 (0.6) | 4.8 (0.3) | 4.7 (0.3) | 0.071 | 0.095 | 0.928 | 0.004 |
Insulin (µIU·mL−1) | 14.0 (5.8) | 9.3 (6.2) * | 13.3 (7.4) | 9.4 (5.8) ^ | 14.4 (9.0) | 11.3 (6.5) * | 0.000 | 0.481 | 0.663 | 0.025 |
C-peptide (pg·mL−1) | 1016.7 (368.9) | 911.7 (440.2) | 1218.8 (470.8) | 968.0 (335.6) | 1072.9 (336.9) | 801.8 (343.2) | 0.015 | 0.171 | 0.672 | 0.025 |
HOMA-IR | 3.0 (1.3) | 2.0 (1.5) * | 2.9 (1.7) | 2.0 (1.3) ^ | 3.2 (2.1) | 2.4 (1.5) * | 0.000 | 0.456 | 0.811 | 0.013 |
Glucagon (pg·mL−1) | 64.7 (33.1) | 64.6 (33.5) | 49.2 (16.8) | 62.4 (27.3) | 51.4 (17.5) | 61.6 (26.2) | 0.244 | 0.045 | 0.706 | 0.023 |
Leptin (ng·mL−1) | 13.5 (9.5) | 7.6 (7.7) * | 11.4 (5.4) | 6.6 (3.6) * | 15.1 (7.0) | 7.5 (6.9) * | 0.000 | 0.342 | 0.738 | 0.019 |
Ghrelin (pg·mL−1) | 860.7 (704.3) | 698.4 (584.2) | 588.5 (324.9) | 517.1 (231.7) | 794.1 (400.1) | 619.8 (463.4) * | 0.003 | 0.244 | 0.555 | 0.036 |
GIP (pg·mL−1) | 45.2 (15.7) | 63.0 (35.9) | 43.2 (11.2) | 57.4 (33.4) | 49.5 (27.6) | 53.1 (26.5) | 0.062 | 0.104 | 0.624 | 0.029 |
∆ LC-CON | ∆ LC-HIIT | ∆ LC-MICT | ES (d) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 11) | (n = 13) | (n = 12) | KD-HIIT | KD-MICT | |
∆ Weight (kg) | −2.5 (1.8) | −2.7 (1.3) | −2.4 (1.3) | 0.12 | 0.04 |
∆ BMI (kg·m−2) | −0.9 (0.6) | −1.0 (0.5) | −0.9 (0.5) | 0.10 | 0.03 |
∆ SBP (mmHg) | −5 (6) | −5 (8) | −6 (7) | 0.00 | 0.09 |
∆ DBP (mmHg) | −2 (7) | −4 (6) | −3 (6) | 0.42 | 0.19 |
∆ MAP (mmHg) | −3 (6) | −5 (6) | −4 (5) | 0.26 | 0.16 |
∆ FG (mmol·L−1) | −0.2 (0.6) | −0.2 (0.5) | −0.1 (0.3) | 0.01 | 0.14 |
∆ Insulin (µIU·mL−1) | −4.8 (5.4) | −3.9 (3.0) | −3.2 (4.3) | 0.20 | 0.34 |
∆ HOMA-IR | −1.0 (1.3) | −0.8 (0.7) | −0.7 (1.0) | 0.20 | 0.26 |
∆ Glucagon (pg·mL−1) | −0.1 (40.5) | 13.2 (35.5) | 10.2 (36.4) | 0.35 | 0.27 |
∆ C-peptide (pg·mL−1) | −105.0 (412.6) | −250.8 (519.8) | −271.1 (496.4) | 0.31 | 0.36 |
∆ HOMA-IR | −1.0 (1.3) | −0.8 (0.7) | −0.7 (1.0) | 0.20 | 0.26 |
∆ Glucagon (pg·mL−1) | −0.1 (40.5) | 13.2 (35.5) | 10.2 (36.4) | 0.35 | 0.27 |
∆ Leptin (ng·mL−1) | −5.9 (8.2) | −4.8 (7.5) | −7.6 (10.3) | 0.15 | 0.18 |
∆ Ghrelin (pg·mL−1) | −162.3 (325.4) | −71.4 (161.9) | −174.3 (244.6) | 0.36 | 0.04 |
∆ GIP (pg·mL−1) | 17.8 (34.5) | 14.1 (25.5) | 3.6 (45.9) | 0.12 | 0.35 |
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Sun, S.; Kong, Z.; Shi, Q.; Zhang, H.; Lei, O.-K.; Nie, J. Carbohydrate Restriction with or without Exercise Training Improves Blood Pressure and Insulin Sensitivity in Overweight Women. Healthcare 2021, 9, 637. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9060637
Sun S, Kong Z, Shi Q, Zhang H, Lei O-K, Nie J. Carbohydrate Restriction with or without Exercise Training Improves Blood Pressure and Insulin Sensitivity in Overweight Women. Healthcare. 2021; 9(6):637. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9060637
Chicago/Turabian StyleSun, Shengyan, Zhaowei Kong, Qingde Shi, Haifeng Zhang, On-Kei Lei, and Jinlei Nie. 2021. "Carbohydrate Restriction with or without Exercise Training Improves Blood Pressure and Insulin Sensitivity in Overweight Women" Healthcare 9, no. 6: 637. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9060637