2.2.1. Basic Attributes
Subjects were asked to report their age, gender, education, and whether they had diseases (hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, osteoporosis, and orthopedic disease) with a self-administered questionnaire. Height, weight, and body mass index were measured directly.
2.2.4. Physical and Cognitive Function
Grip strength, knee extension strength, toe-grip strength, sit-up test, 30-s chair-stand test (CS-30), sit-and-reach test, and one-leg stance test time were measured as evaluations of physical function.
Grip strength was evaluated using a digital hand dynamometer (T.K.K. 5401 Grip-D, Takei Scientific Instruments, Niigata, Japan). This assessment tool has been shown to be valid and reliable [
27]. Two measurements were taken for each side while standing upright with the arms hanging alongside the body and without allowing the dynamometer to touch the body. The maximum observed value (kg) was used.
Knee extension strength was measured using the method detailed by Bohannon [
28]. This assessment tool has been shown to be valid [
29] and reliable [
30]. Knee extension strength was evaluated using a handheld dynamometer (μTasF-1, Anima Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). Measurements were taken with the subject seated in a chair with the knees flexed at 90° and the sensor pad fixed in place with a band at the distal end of the legs. Two measurements were taken for each leg. The body weight-normalized percentage (%), calculated by dividing the maximum observed value (kgf) by body weight (kg), was used.
Toe-grip strength was evaluated using a toe-grip dynamometer (T.K.K. 3362, Takei Scientific Instruments, Niigata, Japan). This assessment tool has been shown to be valid [
31] and reliable [
32]. Measurements were taken with the subject seated in a chair with the knees flexed at 90° and the ankles halfway between plantar flexion and dorsiflexion and internal and external rotation [
33]. Two measurements were taken for each foot. The maximum observed value (kg) was used.
The sit-up test was measured using the method described by Abe et al. [
34]. Subjects lay on a mat in a supine position with the knees bent at an angle of approximately 90°. The arms were crossed at the chest with the hands on opposite shoulders. Subjects performed a full sit-up to the upright position with their elbows touching their thighs and then returned to the supine position. The number of repetitions subjects could complete in 30 s was counted.
CS-30 was measured using the method described by Jones et al. [
35]. Subjects began seated in a chair (height: 40 cm) with the arms crossed over the chest. They were instructed that reaching a standing position with the knees fully straightened and then sitting once again would be considered one cycle of movement and that, at the start signal, they should repeat that cycle as many times as possible for 30 s. The number of sit–stand–sit cycles completed in 30 s was counted.
The sit-and-reach test was evaluated using a digital sit-and-reach test box (T.K.K.5412, Takei Scientific Instruments, Niigata, Japan). This assessment tool has been shown to be valid [
36]. The distance covered by the finger tips during the reach was measured. Two measurements were taken, and the maximum observed distance (cm) was used.
One-leg stance test time was evaluated using a digital stopwatch. The duration for which the subject could maintain a one-legged standing position with the eyes open was measured [
37]. Two measurements were taken for each leg, and the maximum duration (s) was used. Time for the one-leg stance test was capped at 120 s.
Cognitive function was evaluated using the MMSE and Trail Making Test-A (TMT-A). The MMSE is widely used as a general test of cognitive function. It consists of 11 items yielding a maximum score of 30 points [
38]. A score of 23 points or below is considered cognitive impairment [
39,
40]. TMT is a widely used test of attention [
41]. We measured TMT-A for the purpose of evaluating selective attention and sustained attention. Subjects were asked to draw lines, as quickly as possible, connecting numbers 1 through 25, which were randomly arranged on a page, from smallest to largest. The time taken was recorded with a digital stopwatch.