Self-Medication as a Global Health Concern: Overview of Practices and Associated Factors—A Narrative Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Self-Medication in General Population
3. Self-Medication During COVID-19 Pandemic
4. Self-Medication with Antimicrobials
5. Self-Medication in Healthcare Professionals
6. Self-Medication and Medications Kept in Home Pharmacies/Medicine Cabinets/Drug Inventories
7. Discussion
8. Recommendations
9. Limitations
10. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
WHO | World Health Organization |
WMA | World Medical Association |
HCP | Healthcare Professional |
ADR | Adverse Drug Reaction |
OTC | Over The Counter |
COVID-19 | Coronavirus Disease 2019 |
NSAID | Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug |
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Author(s) and Year | Country | Study Objectives and Design | Main Outcomes | Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ylä-Rautio et al. (2020) [7] | Finland |
|
| Pharmaceutical advising should be accessible and actively provided for users to obtain safer self-medication. |
Kłoda K et al. (2024) [25] | Poland |
|
| Educational and organizational support should be implemented at multiple levels. |
Gebert et al. (2024) [26] | Germany |
|
| Practices to ensure availability of evidence-based information about self-medication in pharmacies should be expanded and scientifically researched to upgrade patient-related outcomes. |
Barrenberg et al. (2018) [27] | Germany |
|
| Prescription or recommendation of OTC drugs by physicians should be considered in future research and given justified scientific attention. |
Klemenc-Ketis et al. (2010) [28] | Slovenia |
|
| The level of awareness of risks of irresponsible medication should be lifted to a higher level through action and practices in education and public health actions. |
Schmiedl et al. (2014) [15] | Germany |
|
| The patients’ safety would be improved by development of programs focused on elderly patients and patients who receive prescribed medicines with interaction potential. |
Kıroğlu et al. (2022) [29] | Turkey |
|
| To prevent inappropriate drug use regulations on conventional and herbal medicines usage should be put into practice. |
Yeamans et al. (2024) [17] | European Union |
|
| Tools to find potentially dangerous self-medication practices and advise policy decisions adjacent to self-medication should be developed. |
Lau et al. (1995) [32] | China |
|
| The role of healthcare professionals should be more active to establish good self-care programs. |
Martín-Pérez et al. (2016) [30] | Spain |
|
| Understanding factors that influence self-medication is important to recognize the parents who would be inclined toward it and to enhance the level of knowledge of responsible self-medication. |
Jensen et al. (2014) [38] | Denmark |
|
| Information to parents about appropriate self-medication is important to increase awareness of responsible use of paracetamol in schoolchildren. |
Du et al. (2009) [37] | Germany |
|
| The shown behaviors represent justification for development and implementation of educational programs for parents. |
Tarciuc et al. (2020) [36] | Romania |
|
| Educational actions in the domain of responsible self-medication should be strengthened to prevent the risks associated with this practice. |
Knopf et al. (2017) [39] | Germany |
|
| Ongoing surveillance of medicine consumption is particularly important to public health regarding health issues and costs. |
Garofalo et al. (2015) [31] | Italy |
|
| A quite high frequency of oral self-medication that is inappropriate in majority of respondents warrants development and implementation of educational programs. |
Gheorman et al. (2024) [40] | Romania |
|
| It is necessary to have chosen informational campaigns and educational schemes for various demographic groups. |
Ge et al. (2022) [35] | China |
|
| Coordinated actions from regulators, healthcare professionals, and drug manufacturers should be implemented to influence and regulate self-medication in the population. |
Figueiras et al. (2000) [41] | Spain |
|
| There is a need for public health education programs aimed at improving the quality of self-medication behavior. |
Niclós et al. (2017) [42] | Spain |
|
| Targeted health education on the risks of self-medication should be examined. |
Lei et al. (2018) [18] | China |
|
| Drug consultation services should be standardized to reduce the risk of inappropriate self-medication. |
Okyay et al. (2017) [33] | Turkey |
|
| Educational activities should be implemented to avoid negative consequences of inappropriate self-medication |
Meknassi Salime et al. (2025) [34] | Morocco |
|
| Therapeutic training programs planned for families should be developed in cooperation with healthcare professionals. |
Author(s) and Year | Country | Study Objectives and Design | Main Outcomes | Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|
Karami et al. (2023) [48] | USA |
|
| Findings highlight the importance of safely storing medications and being alert to signs that adolescents may need mental health support services. |
Makowska et al. (2020) [43] | Poland |
|
| Appropriate public health programs should be developed to help people properly manage medications in situations where the availability of physicians is limited, such as lockdowns. |
Aydın Aksoy et al. (2024) [47] | Turkey |
|
| Continued education of the public is relevant to positively influence maternal decision making concerning child health and medication practices. |
King et al. (2022) [45] | USA |
|
| Addressing the impact of COVID-19 on vulnerable people who use drugs possibly could help limit drug stockpiling, which may decrease rates of high-intensity stimulant use. |
Chaudhry et al. (2022) [19] | Pakistan |
|
| Besides increasing awareness and understanding about the possible adverse effects of self-medication, partnerships with pharmacists must be developed and applied in order not to sell prescription medicines without a verified prescription. |
Mejia et al. (2023) [49] | Latin America |
|
| Public health measures should be implemented to fight against irresponsible self-medication to prevent negative impact on current health and future effectiveness of medicines, particularly in case of antibiotic self-medication. |
Arboleda Forero et al. (2023) [52] | Columbia |
|
| Increasing awareness of inappropriate self-medication with antibiotics and its possible consequences through targeted actions is important to ensure the controlled use of these medications. |
Zhang et al. (2021) [51] | Australia |
|
| Development and implementation of tailored education programs to raise awareness of risks of inappropriate self-medication is needed. |
Mustafa et al. (2023) [54] | Pakistan |
|
| Increasing the awareness of appropriate use of antibiotics to contain development of antimicrobial resistance is necessary. |
Salvador-Carrillo et al. (2024) [55] | Peru |
|
| There is a need to strengthen public health education, improve access to healthcare system, and reinforce education of HCPs to diminish self-medication practices, especially during disastrous events such as pandemic. |
Stüdemann et al. (2024) [46] | Germany |
|
| Further studies could be useful to examine a possible causal relationship between OTC medicines and COVID-19 disease course. |
Jifar et al. (2024) [50] | Ethiopia |
|
| Particular attention should be given to educate both HCPs and the public on the types of diseases that can be self-diagnosed and self-treated and the types of drugs to be used for self-medication. |
Zheng et al. (2024) [57] | Macao |
|
| Increasing the recognition of pharmacists as well as adapting pharmacy governance models and enhancing pharmacists’ self-perception should be addressed. |
Souza et al. (2024) [56] | Brazil |
|
| Health education measures should be developed and implemented to reduce self-medication and guide the population regarding the risks of this practice. |
Li et al. (2024) [53] | China |
|
| Efforts to increase awareness and promote the rational use of antibiotics require collective engagement. |
Author(s) and Year | Country | Study Objectives and Design | Main Outcomes | Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|
Väänänen et al. (2006) [62] | Spain |
|
| Importance of increasing AMR awareness and promoting rational and more supervised use of antibiotics to minimize the expansion of antibiotic resistance. |
Grigoryan et al. (2006) [70] | Europe |
|
| Activities to diminish inappropriate self-medication should be directed toward prescribers, pharmacists, and patients. |
Roberts et al. (2020) [73] | USA |
|
| There is a need for education on self-medication with antibiotics that were not prescribed to increase awareness, and it should be implemented in dental curricula. |
Zhu et al. (2016) [67] | China |
|
| It is necessary to have firm regulations on antibiotic sales. In addition, public education supported by further healthcare reform is recommended. |
Wang et al. (2018) [63] | China |
|
| Findings about the practices of keeping antibiotics at home present a serious issue, which suggest there is a need for professional directives and population-tailored health education. |
Bi et al. (2000) [64] | China |
|
| More education on proper antibiotic use and on possible risks associated with irresponsible self-medication of antibiotics is needed. |
Napolitano et al. (2013) [72] | Italy |
|
| Functional public health initiative should be implemented to ensure feasible and suitable mechanisms to change the practices of irresponsible self-medication. |
Pedrolongo et al. (2024) [61] | Brazil |
|
| There is a need to strengthen the education of HCPs who prescribe and dispense antibiotics to contain self-medication to prevent even bigger scale of the problem. |
Pei et al. (2023) [68] | China |
|
| Understanding the psychological factors driving parental self-medication with antibiotics may inform customized interventions to promote responsible antibiotic use among parents. |
Cruz et al. (2022) [74] | Colombia |
|
| These findings should inform future interventions to reduce self-medication in children. |
Saif et al. (2024) [65] | Pakistan |
|
| Specific relevant measures are alarmingly needed to prevent antibiotics to become futile in eliminating various controllable microbial diseases. |
Jifar et al. (2024) [50] | Ethiopia |
|
| Particular attention should be given to educate both HCPs and the public on the types of diseases that can be self-diagnosed and self-treated and the types of drugs to be used for self-medication. |
Nazari et al. (2024) [66] | Iran |
|
| It is necessary to increase the awareness of self-medication with antibiotics and AMR through development and implementation of inclusive public health strategies and coordinated efforts of HCPs. |
Duan et al. (2024) [75] | China |
|
| Sophisticated intervention strategy should be implemented to reinforce parents’ ability to differentiate mild from severe upper respiratory tract infections, as well as their knowledge of antibiotics. |
Darakhvelidze et al. (2024) [76] | Georgia |
|
| The level of knowledge of inappropriate self-medication with antibiotics should be increased, and the sales of antibiotics without physician’s prescription should be regulated. |
Elhaddadi et al. (2024) [69] | Morocco |
|
| It is necessary to increase the level of knowledge on responsible use of antibiotics. |
Author(s) and Year | Country | Study Objectives and Design | Main Outcomes | Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aşut et al. (2025) [79] | Turkey |
|
| There is a need for educational improvements and better support systems that could enhance help-seeking, which should finally result in better health outcomes for psychiatrist and psychiatry residents. |
Balon (2007) [81] | USA |
|
| A substantial number of psychiatrists would treat themselves for depression, perhaps because of fear of stigma, a permanent record, or other reasons. |
Kim et al. (2025) [82] | South Korea |
|
| Since self-prescribing for some physicians could relate to use of more possibly habit-forming drugs than necessary, closer surveillance of such self-prescribing habits among physicians may be needed. |
Rosvold et al. (2002) [97] | Norway |
|
| Since many physicians practice self-medication when they are ill and may contact friends and colleagues when they need help from another physician, it is worth addressing situations like these during their education. |
Benameur et al. (2019) [89] | Saudi Arabia |
|
| Health education should be improved in the direction of addressing this issue in a way that would result in ameliorating students’ knowledge, awareness, and attitudes on the use of antibiotics. |
Turan (2024) [90] | Turkey |
|
| Educational interventions to promote the development of responsible self-medication behaviors should be a part medical school education to significantly enhance relevance of responsible practices of self-medication. |
Galán Andrés et al. (2021) [88] | Spain |
|
| There is a need to review and improve education on rational medicines use and responsible self-medication in the curriculum. |
Al Essa et al. (2019) [91] | Saudi Arabia |
|
| It is necessary to educate students about responsible self-medication as well as the risks of irresponsible self-medication. |
Alduraibi et al. (2022) [92] | Saudi Arabia |
|
| The importance of medical and pharmacy students as contributors to the public healthcare system and future HCPs should be reflected in proper education on responsible self-medication and good pharmacy practice. |
Kokabisaghi et al. (2024) [96] | Iran |
|
| Recognizing the future role of medical students, it is necessary to pay more attention to their education in this area, together with controlling the prevalence of self-medication. |
Hassan et al. (2025) [93] | Egypt |
|
| It is necessary to value diagnosis, awareness, and seriousness of self-medication. |
Jayawardhana et al. (2023) [94] | Sri Lanka |
|
| Although students advanced considering knowledge, the self-medication practices remain the same over the years, which revealed the need to identify the additional drivers of antibiotic misuse among medical undergraduates. |
Author(s) and Year | Country | Study Objectives and Design | Main Outcomes | Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|
Louhisalmi et al. (2025) [105] | Finland |
|
| The study showed that households had many medicines, highlighting the need for better storage and optimized packaging to improve safety, reduce waste, and enhance rational pharmacotherapy. |
Tieu Mai Diep et al. (2024) [102] | Vietnam |
|
| Considering the high prevalence of household medication storage and some inappropriate storage behaviors, attention should be given to the development of effective interventions and policies to promote safe and appropriate storage practices. |
Volkos et al. (2024) [107] | Greece |
|
| The findings could potentially inform primary care providers to focus on patients most likely to be users of psychotropic medicines without medical advice. |
Köksoy (2024) [103] | Turkey |
|
| There is an obvious need for increasing public awareness on inappropriateness of practices of storing unused medicines, as well as expired and improperly stored medicines, and giving directions toward responsible medicine use and disposal. |
Beuscart et al. (2019) [106] | France |
|
| Pharmacists working in community pharmacies could identify high-priority older patients that need help with managing medications by asking simple questions about difficulties in managing, administering, taking, or storing medications. |
De Bolle et al. (2008) [101] | Belgium |
|
| Since many younger participants showed inclination toward self-medication, there is a justified need to develop awareness of the risks of self-medication to avoid the risks connected with it. |
Tourinho et al. (2008) [104] | Brazil |
|
| To encourage rational use, minimize waste, and stimulate safe storage of drugs, it is necessary to develop and implement awareness campaigns. |
Aljinović-Vučić et al. (2005) [95] | Croatia |
|
| There is a need to increase awareness on responsible self-medication and enhance education on irresponsible self-medication of antibiotics. |
Recommendations |
---|
General |
Educational and organizational support to understand the risks of inappropriate self-medication and to prevent consequences associated with it should be implemented at multiple levels: social (information campaigns and educational institutions), the healthcare system (increasing the role of medical professionals), and in the legislative area (advise policy decisions related to self-medication and regulators’ participation). |
Social |
Develop and implement educational activities and functional public health initiatives through the following:
|
Health systems and healthcare professionals |
Healthcare professionals should assume a more active role through the following actions:
|
Antimicrobials/antibiotics |
Efforts should be made to increase the awareness of the risks of inappropriate self-medication and promote the rational use of antibiotics to prevent an even bigger scale of antimicrobial resistance development, which requires coordinated efforts of HCPs and collective engagement through the following actions:
|
Education of healthcare professionals (current and future) |
HCP education should be improved to address the issue of self-medication/self-prescribing and rational medicines use in a way that would result in improving students’ knowledge, awareness, and attitudes on the subject through the following actions:
|
Home pharmacies/Medicine cabinets |
To encourage rational use, stimulate the safe storage of drugs, and minimize waste, it is necessary to develop and implement public awareness campaigns on the possible risks of storing unused medicines, as well as expired and improperly stored medicines, and give clear directions regarding responsible medicine use and disposal through the following actions:
|
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Share and Cite
Aljinović-Vučić, V. Self-Medication as a Global Health Concern: Overview of Practices and Associated Factors—A Narrative Review. Healthcare 2025, 13, 1872. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13151872
Aljinović-Vučić V. Self-Medication as a Global Health Concern: Overview of Practices and Associated Factors—A Narrative Review. Healthcare. 2025; 13(15):1872. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13151872
Chicago/Turabian StyleAljinović-Vučić, Vedrana. 2025. "Self-Medication as a Global Health Concern: Overview of Practices and Associated Factors—A Narrative Review" Healthcare 13, no. 15: 1872. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13151872
APA StyleAljinović-Vučić, V. (2025). Self-Medication as a Global Health Concern: Overview of Practices and Associated Factors—A Narrative Review. Healthcare, 13(15), 1872. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13151872