Older Adults and Positive Mental Health during the Second and Sixth COVID-19 Waves in Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure and Materials
- (i)
- Second order questionnaire on coping with COVID-19 composed of 9 questions (question 3 is in the CIS study 3302, and question 2 is in the 3346 study). This questionnaire mainly involves emotional coping issues (fear, worry and dread, among others). Although the scale is dichotomous in its nature, the Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω coefficients were used as an approximation to KR (Kuder–Richardson) for internal consistency. In this way, Cronbach’s α was 0.571 for the 2nd wave and 0.651 for the sixth one, while McDonald’s ω was 0.575 for the 2nd wave and 0.650 for the sixth one. These measures were used as a second order method.
- (ii)
- Likert 4-point inverted scale with 6 items for positive mental health (question 4 in both the CIS studies 3302 and 3346), containing the main question: How have you been feeling lately? In terms of internal consistency, Cronbach’s α was 0.786 for the 2nd wave and 0.777 for the sixth one, while McDonald’s ω was 0.791 for the 2nd wave and 0.781 for the sixth one.
2.3. Design and Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Antonini, M.; Eid, M.A.; Falkenbach, M.; Rosenbluth, S.T.; Prieto, P.A.; Brammli-Greenberg, S.; McMeekin, P.; Paolucci, F. An Analysis of the COVID-19 Vaccination Campaigns in France, Israel, Italy and Spain and Their Impact on Health and Economic Outcomes. Health Policy Technol. 2022, 11, 100594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kawohl, W.; Nordt, C. COVID-19, Unemployment, and Suicide. Lancet Psychiatry 2020, 7, 389–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moret-Tatay, C.; Murphy, M. Anxiety, Resilience and Local Conditions: A CROSS-CULTURAL Investigation in the Time of Covid-19. Int. J. Psychol. 2022, 57, 161–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Della Gatta, F.; Terribili, C.; Fabrizi, E.; Moret-Tatay, C. Making Older Adults’ Cognitive Health Visible After Covid-19 Outbreak. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 648208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Docherty, A.B.; Harrison, E.M.; Green, C.A.; Hardwick, H.E.; Pius, R.; Norman, L.; Holden, K.A.; Read, J.M.; Dondelinger, F.; Carson, G.; et al. Features of 20 133 UK Patients in Hospital with Covid-19 Using the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterisation Protocol: Prospective Observational Cohort Study. BMJ 2020, 369, m1985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walle-Hansen, M.M.; Ranhoff, A.H.; Mellingsæter, M.; Wang-Hansen, M.S.; Myrstad, M. Health-Related Quality of Life, Functional Decline, and Long-Term Mortality in Older Patients Following Hospitalisation Due to COVID-19. BMC Geriatr. 2021, 21, 199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Ren, L.; Zhao, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Fan, G.; Xu, J.; Gu, X.; et al. Clinical Features of Patients Infected with 2019 Novel Coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020, 395, 497–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fuller, H.R.; Huseth-Zosel, A. Lessons in Resilience: Initial Coping Among Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Gerontologist 2021, 61, 114–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shrira, A.; Hoffman, Y.; Bodner, E.; Palgi, Y. COVID-19-Related Loneliness and Psychiatric Symptoms Among Older Adults: The Buffering Role of Subjective Age. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2020, 28, 1200–1204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- González-Sanguino, C.; Ausín, B.; Castellanos, M.Á.; Saiz, J.; López-Gómez, A.; Ugidos, C.; Muñoz, M. Mental Health Consequences during the Initial Stage of the 2020 Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) in Spain. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2020, 87, 172–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, D.; Ko, N.; Chen, Y.; Wang, P.; Chang, Y.; Yen, C. Confidence in Coping with COVID-19 and Its Related Factors among the Public in Taiwan. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2020, 74, 608–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tang, C.S.-K.; Wong, C.-Y. Psychosocial Factors Influencing the Practice of Preventive Behaviors Against the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Among Older Chinese in Hong Kong. J. Aging Health 2005, 17, 490–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McLean, C.L.; Chu, G.M.; Karnaze, M.M.; Bloss, C.S.; Lang, A.J. Social Support Coping Styles and Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Sex. J. Affect. Disord. 2022, 308, 106–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yan, S.; Xu, R.; Stratton, T.D.; Kavcic, V.; Luo, D.; Hou, F.; Bi, F.; Jiao, R.; Song, K.; Jiang, Y. Sex Differences and Psychological Stress: Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic in China. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Park, C.L.; Russell, B.S.; Fendrich, M.; Finkelstein-Fox, L.; Hutchison, M.; Becker, J. Americans’ COVID-19 Stress, Coping, and Adherence to CDC Guidelines. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2020, 35, 2296–2303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Mengual, N.; Aragonés-Barbera, I.; Moret-Tatay, C.; Moliner-Albero, A.R. The Relationship of Fear of Death Between Neuroticism and Anxiety During the Covid-19 Pandemic. Front. Psychiatry 2021, 12, 648498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rogowska, A.M.; Kuśnierz, C.; Bokszczanin, A. Examining Anxiety, Life Satisfaction, General Health, Stress and Coping Styles During COVID-19 Pandemic in Polish Sample of University Students. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2020, 13, 797–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hou, Y.; Hou, W.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, W.; Chen, A. Relationship between Working Stress and Anxiety of Medical Workers in the COVID-19 Situation: A Moderated Mediation Model. J. Affect. Disord. 2022, 297, 314–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rossi, R.; Jannini, T.B.; Socci, V.; Pacitti, F.; Lorenzo, G.D. Stressful Life Events and Resilience During the COVID-19 Lockdown Measures in Italy: Association With Mental Health Outcomes and Age. Front. Psychiatry 2021, 12, 635832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gori, A.; Topino, E.; Di Fabio, A. The Protective Role of Life Satisfaction, Coping Strategies and Defense Mechanisms on Perceived Stress Due to COVID-19 Emergency: A Chained Mediation Model. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0242402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malek Rivan, N.F.; Shahar, S.; Singh, D.K.A.; Ibrahim, N.; Mat Ludin, A.F.; Yahya, H.M.; Mohamed Sakian, N.I.; Mahadzir, H.; Subramaniam, P.; Kamaruddin, M.Z.A. Mediation Effect of Coping Strategies on General Psychological Health among Middle-Aged and Older Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Aging Ment. Health 2022, 26, 2039–2047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Winzer, R.; Sorjonen, K.; Lindberg, L. What Predicts Stable Mental Health in the 18–29 Age Group Compared to Older Age Groups? Results from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort 2002–2014. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2018, 15, 2859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rosales Sánchez, C.; Craglia, M.; Bregt, A.K. New Data Sources for Social Indicators: The Case Study of Contacting Politicians by Twitter. Int. J. Digit. Earth 2017, 10, 829–845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayes, A.F. An Index and Test of Linear Moderated Mediation. Multivar. Behav. Res. 2015, 50, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moret-Tatay, C.; Lami, A.; Oliveira, C.R.; Beneyto-Arrojo, M.J. The Mediational Role of Distracting Stimuli in Emotional Word Recognition. Psicol. Reflex. E Crítica 2018, 31, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Saleem, F.; Malik, M.I.; Qureshi, S.S. Work Stress Hampering Employee Performance During COVID-19: Is Safety Culture Needed? Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 655839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Preis, H.; Mahaffey, B.; Heiselman, C.; Lobel, M. Vulnerability and Resilience to Pandemic-Related Stress among U.S. Women Pregnant at the Start of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Soc. Sci. Med. 2020, 266, 113348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sánchez, O.R.; Vale, D.B.; Rodrigues, L.; Surita, F.G. Violence against Women during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Integrative Review. Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet. 2020, 151, 180–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almeida, M.; Shrestha, A.D.; Stojanac, D.; Miller, L.J. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Women’s Mental Health. Arch. Womens Ment. Health 2020, 23, 741–748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fiorenzato, E.; Zabberoni, S.; Costa, A.; Cona, G. Cognitive and Mental Health Changes and Their Vulnerability Factors Related to COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0246204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wąsowicz, G.; Mizak, S.; Krawiec, J.; Białaszek, W. Mental Health, Well-Being, and Psychological Flexibility in the Stressful Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 647975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fraser, S.; Lagacé, M.; Bongué, B.; Ndeye, N.; Guyot, J.; Bechard, L.; Garcia, L.; Taler, V.; CCNA Social Inclusion and Stigma Working Group; Andrew, M.; et al. Ageism and COVID-19: What Does Our Society’s Response Say about Us? Age Ageing 2020, 49, 692–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marques, S.; Mariano, J.; Mendonça, J.; De Tavernier, W.; Hess, M.; Naegele, L.; Peixeiro, F.; Martins, D. Determinants of Ageism against Older Adults: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2020, 17, 2560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Feng, H.; Gan, C.C.R.; Leiva, D.; Zhang, B.L.; Davies, S.E. COVID-19, Sex, and Gender in China: A Scoping Review. Glob. Health 2022, 18, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Confidence to Cope | Positive Mental Health | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Women | Men | p (d’) | Women | Men | p (d’) | |
2nd Wave | Mean | 14.270 | 14.821 | <0.001 | 18.108 | 19.507 | <0.001 |
SD | 2.923 | 2.875 | (−0.19) | 3.466 | 3.003 | (−0.43) | |
6th Wave | Mean | 13.880 | 13.202 | <0.001 | 19.868 | 18.509 | <0.001 |
SD | 2.841 | 2.738 | (0.24) | 3.084 | 3.476 | (0.41) |
Coefficients | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
95% CI | ||||||||
Model | B | SE | β | t | p | LLCI | ULCI | |
(Intercept) | 12.881 | 0.309 | 41.657 | <0.001 | 12.275 | 13.488 | ||
2nd wave | Confidence to cope | 0.477 | 0.022 | 0.386 | 22.128 | <0.001 | 0.435 | 0.520 |
Sex | 1.146 | 0.114 | 0.172 | 10.064 | <0.001 | 0.923 | 1.369 | |
Age | −0.009 | 0.004 | −0.043 | −2.449 | 0.014 | −0.015 | −0.002 | |
(Intercept) | 13.540 | 0.057 | 239.133 | <0.001 | 13.429 | 13.651 | ||
6th wave | Confidence to cope | 0.341 | 0.015 | 0.407 | 22.105 | <0.001 | 0.311 | 0.371 |
Sex | −0.224 | 0.103 | −0.040 | −2.176 | 0.030 | −0.426 | −0.022 | |
Age | 0.025 | 0.003 | 0.147 | 8.147 | <0.001 | 0.019 | 0.031 |
Model | Group Measures | Effect | SE | p | LLCI | ULCI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2nd wave | Direct effect | −0.04 | 0.01 | <0.05 | −0.07 | −0.005 | |
Indirect effect | Men | −0.48 | 0.10 | <0.05 | 0.07 | 0.12 | |
Women | 0.51 | 0.05 | <0.05 | 0.03 | 0.07 | ||
Confidence to cope | Constant | −0.003 | 0.01 | 0.84 | −0.03 | 0.03 | |
Age | 0.20 | 0.01 | <.001 | 0.16 | 0.23 | ||
Sex | 0.21 | 0.03 | <0.01 | −0.19 | −0.05 | ||
Interaction | −0.12 | 0.03 | <0.01 | −0.19 | −0.05 | ||
Positive Mental Health | Constant | 0.001 | 0.01 | 0.97 | −0.03 | 0.03 | |
Confidence | 0.38 | 0.02 | <0.01 | 0.33 | 0.43 | ||
Age | −0.04 | 0.01 | <0.05 | −0.07 | −0.005 | ||
Sex | 0.34 | 0.03 | <0.01 | 0.27 | 0.41 | ||
Interaction | −0.01 | 0.04 | 0.80 | −0.11 | 0.08 | ||
6th wave | Direct effect | 0.14 | 0.01 | <0.01 | 0.11 | 0.18 | |
Indirect effect | Men | 0.04 | 0.01 | <0.05 | 0.02 | 0.07 | |
Women | 0.03 | 0.01 | <0.05 | 0.01 | 0.06 | ||
Confidence to cope | Constant | 0.66 | 0.06 | <0.01 | 0.48 | 0.73 | |
Age | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.24 | ||
Sex | −0.40 | 0.03 | <0.01 | −0.48 | −0.33 | ||
Interaction | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.75 | −0.08 | 0.06 | ||
Positive Mental Health | Constant | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.002 | 0.23 | |
Confidence to cope | 0.44 | 0.06 | <0.01 | 0.32 | 0.56 | ||
Age | 0.14 | 0.01 | <0.01 | 0.11 | 0.18 | ||
Sex | −0.07 | 0.03 | <0.01 | −0.15 | −0.007 | ||
Interaction | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.52 | −0.09 | 0.04 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Moret-Tatay, C.; Cloquell-Lozano, A.; Pérez-Bermejo, M.; Arteaga-Moreno, F.J. Older Adults and Positive Mental Health during the Second and Sixth COVID-19 Waves in Spain. Healthcare 2022, 10, 2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10112159
Moret-Tatay C, Cloquell-Lozano A, Pérez-Bermejo M, Arteaga-Moreno FJ. Older Adults and Positive Mental Health during the Second and Sixth COVID-19 Waves in Spain. Healthcare. 2022; 10(11):2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10112159
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoret-Tatay, Carmen, Alexis Cloquell-Lozano, Marcelino Pérez-Bermejo, and Francisco Javier Arteaga-Moreno. 2022. "Older Adults and Positive Mental Health during the Second and Sixth COVID-19 Waves in Spain" Healthcare 10, no. 11: 2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10112159
APA StyleMoret-Tatay, C., Cloquell-Lozano, A., Pérez-Bermejo, M., & Arteaga-Moreno, F. J. (2022). Older Adults and Positive Mental Health during the Second and Sixth COVID-19 Waves in Spain. Healthcare, 10(11), 2159. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10112159