Mapping Pathways to Inclusive Music Education: Using UDL Principles to Support Primary Teachers and Their Students

Abstract

Music education offers well-documented benefits for student learning; however, generalist teachers often report low confidence in integrating music into their lessons. This study applies Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles to develop teaching resources that address teacher barriers to music integration. Using framework analysis, data collected from semi-structured interviews with ten trainee primary teachers in United Arab Emirates (UAE) British curriculum schools were mapped against UDL’s three core principles: engagement, representation, and action and expression. Despite recognising music’s holistic educational value in cognitive enhancement, memory retention, and student expression, participants reported significant barriers to integrating the subject into their lessons. These barriers included performance anxiety, a perceived lack of subject knowledge, and fear of student judgement. The barriers were most pronounced when faced with the prospect of teaching upper-primary students. Framework analysis revealed how these challenges align with the UDL’s core principles. These findings led to the development of five-step music resources, categorised into beginner and intermediate levels. Each step of the resources is designed to systematically address these identified barriers through UDL’s proactive and intentional design criteria. This demonstrates how teacher education can move beyond identifying barriers to creating structured solutions that support inclusive music integration while maintaining pedagogical authenticity.

1. Introduction

In an increasingly diverse educational landscape, the engagement of all learners is paramount. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an inclusive framework designed to enable educators to rethink their planning and develop more learner agency through increased access, engagement and participation (CAST, 2024). UDL is an approach to teaching that anticipates the natural variability of learners within a classroom, providing multiple pathways for engagement, representation, and action and expression (CAST, 2024). This framework enables learners to develop self-regulation and access lessons independently, building ‘learner expertise’ (Ertmer & Newby, 1996).

Many researchers have demonstrated the utility of the UDL framework for different purposes, including supporting students with disabilities (Cook & Rao, 2018; Robinson, 2013). While previous theories of existing intelligences, such as “multiple intelligences” (Gardner, 1987, p. 18) and the concept of learning styles, have since been questioned by researchers (Joswick et al., 2023), the use of arts instruction to support learning strategies is well-supported (Thomas & Arnold, 2011). Research indicates that whole-body and physical movement, which includes activities such as physical writing, drawing, acting, and singing, increases academic achievement among other benefits (James, 2017; Lehtonen et al., 2020; Verdine et al., 2014). Music can provide alternate modes of engagement that capture attention and sustain motivation (Swanson, 2019). It naturally incorporates multiple means of representation through auditory and kinaesthetic experiences (Darrow, 2016), and there is an increase in diverse opportunities for action and expression as students demonstrate understanding through composition or performance (Robinson, 2013).

It is widely agreed that music has the potential to be a transformative force for learners (Hallam, 2010; Kong & Xiong, 2025; Levstek et al., 2023; UNESCO, 2024), yet the persistent confidence gap among generalist teachers continues to limit its classroom implementation. Music has often been regarded as one of the most challenging subjects to teach for generalist (non-specialist) teachers, due to the belief that they lack the required knowledge and skills, which results in lower confidence (Sirek & Sefton, 2024), often based on negative prior experiences (Biasutti et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013; Hennessy, 2000; Hogle, 2021). Hogle (2021) introduced the concept of musical ‘wounding’ to describe this phenomenon, referencing incidents of musical exclusion that prevent agency. “Wounding stories” (Palkki, 2022, p. 485) describe feelings of being musically incompetent, producing resentment toward it as a subject to be learned or taught. Music’s ability to trigger complicated emotions, positive and negative, is identified by MacGregor (2024) as “musical vulnerability”. Based on the concept of linguistic vulnerability (Butler, 1997), this concept posits that music can “define identity or status and arouse happiness or hatred” (MacGregor, 2024, p. 30).

Building on previous studies that have attempted to address fixed mindsets about musical ability (Hallam & Prince, 2003; Holden & Button, 2006; Mills, 1995; Ward et al., 2023), this research uses UDL to identify barriers to music in the classroom and how the same framework can support teachers to increase musicality in their classrooms. The data presented are part of a larger intervention designed to increase teacher confidence in integrating music into the classroom, with results already published (Anderson, 2025). This article will demonstrate how using the UDL framework can help identify teacher barriers and ultimately increase modes of engagement, representation and action and expression.

2. Literature Review

Building on this foundation, Universal Design originated in architecture to provide access for all, regardless of physical ability (Darrow, 2016). Similarly, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) strives to ensure access to curricula for all learners by identifying and removing barriers to participation (CAST, 2024). The three core principles are engagement, the “why” of learning, representation, the “what” of learning, and action and expression, the “how” of learning (CAST, 2024; Glass et al., 2013). Rather than requiring teachers to plan individualised lessons, UDL supports flexible planning structures that examine pedagogy to reduce classroom barriers stemming from curriculum design to teaching practices (Armes et al., 2022; Cook & Rao, 2018). Initially developed in 1984, UDL has been continually refined, creating a global impact on teaching and learning.

The Engagement principle (Figure 1) focuses on motivating learners through guidelines for welcoming [their] interests and identities (7), creating opportunities for choice while acknowledging individual backgrounds and supporting the joy of learning (CAST, 2024). Additional guidelines help learners sustain effort and persistence (8) as they develop independence through increasing challenge, collaboration and purpose (Glass et al., 2013). Representation (Figure 1) recognises that all learners benefit from multimodal learning opportunities and diverse cultural representations in the classroom. Music supports all three guidelines that fall under this principle: perception, language and symbols, and building knowledge (Draper, 2024). The framework acknowledges that learners process information differently and benefit from multiple pathways to access content (Armes et al., 2022). Action and Expression enable learners to demonstrate their understanding and skills in various ways. Rather than limiting students to traditional teaching formats like written assignments or formal presentations, this principle provides opportunity for interaction, expression and communication, and strategy development, allowing learners to show knowledge through diverse modalities that match their strengths (Cook & Rao, 2018).

Recent reviews have detailed the benefits of UDL but also highlighted implementation challenges, including concerns about the consistency, fidelity, and the lack of detailed reporting about specific guidelines and checkpoints (Capp, 2017; King-Sears et al., 2023; Sánchez et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2024). While research on effectively training teachers using UDL remains limited, particularly in subject-specific applications, music offers promising pathways for implementation. It gives a direct connection to the creative process and supports many checkpoints across the three core UDL principles (Robinson, 2013).

Firstly, music integration directly supports several engagement checkpoints, including Optimising relevance, value, and authenticity (7.2), Nurturing joy and play (7.3), and Fostering belonging and community (8.4) (CAST, 2024). Using music from multiple cultures creates experiences that are both relevant and meaningful for students from diverse backgrounds while representing diverse perspectives in authentic ways (1.3). When students are given a choice about which music to engage with through performance, composition, and improvisation, this provides multiple means of engagement (Armes et al., 2022). These choices enhance engagement while facilitating more culturally responsive teaching. (Waitoller & King-Thorius, 2016). Music integration also aligns with the representation principle by providing alternative modalities for accessing information. Music can support learners in decoding unfamiliar languages, or texts and symbols (2.2) while offering diverse cultural perspectives. Within action and expression, music also provides alternative communication tools, with improvisation offering creative expression for all students (Darrow, 2016).

However, integrating music within UDL principles can present challenges for non-specialist teachers. Bell et al.’s (2020) work on creating more inclusive music spaces demonstrates that the UDL framework cannot account for all possible barriers in musical contexts, highlighting an additional complexity for generalist teachers who must navigate both pedagogical and musical uncertainties simultaneously. Research finds that generalist teachers value music, but due to time constraints and a lack of confidence, only integrate it in what Bresler (1998, p. 15) defines as the “subservient” approach. Subservient approaches “serve the core academic curriculum”, such as using a song in a lesson to memorise facts about another subject (O’Keefe et al., 2016, p. 14). Munroe (2015) advocates for a style of integration that maintains reciprocal integrity for both disciplines, leading to a more comprehensive curriculum that offers students multiple access points.

In the case of music, studies have been carried out to understand perceptions on its integration, especially with the “core” subjects of English, maths and science (Caldwell et al., 2021; Rogers, 2016; Viladot et al., 2018). In Welch and Henley’s (2014) cross-curricular music intervention for trainee generalist teachers, even the most incremental increases in teacher confidence were found to broaden access to music teaching experiences and give opportunities for deeper professional development. Drawing on this background, the current research aims to address the following questions:

• How can Universal Design for Learning principles identify classroom barriers to integrating music as reported by teachers?
• Can a UDL structured music teaching resource be developed using proactive and intentional design criteria, addressing teacher hesitancy in engaging with music in the classroom?

These questions are addressed through a qualitative exploration of teacher attitudes, confidence, and readiness to incorporate music into their general education classrooms. The data, UDL principles, and checkpoints, combined with music education theory, informed the creation of a structured intervention for general education teachers with low music confidence.

The research setting, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), operates 196 British curriculum schools (Edrabia, 2025), serving a predominantly expatriate population. While UAE educational inspection frameworks do not mandate specific music curricula, they emphasise “creativity,” “critical thinking,” and “innovation” as key evaluation criteria (KHDA, 2016; Ministry of Education, 2017). This creates an environment where generalist teachers are expected to integrate creative approaches across subjects without specific guidance on implementation, particularly in arts integration such as music.

The research site is the only British university in the UAE to offer the Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) with International Qualified Teacher Status (iQTS), a one-year Initial Teacher Education (ITE) programme for primary teachers (ages 4–11). This includes in-school training, as well as campus lectures, to prepare graduates for employment in accredited British Schools Overseas (BSO) (GOV.UK, 2025). The PGCE also enables graduates to work in schools that follow other syllabuses, such as the American and IB curricula, within the UAE’s diverse educational landscape. With lectures delivered on-site, the whole cohort of nineteen students that year represented typical enrolment figures for this qualification in the region. The demographic makeup of eighteen female and one male student also reflected the typical gender distribution in primary education (Sircar, 2025).

3. Methodology

Data were collected to investigate teacher trainees’ attitudes toward music and to determine whether the use of an online learning module would increase their incorporation of music into the general education classroom. The regulatory body for education in Dubai, the Knowledge and Human Development Authority (KHDA), recommends the UDL as part of its inclusive education framework (KHDA, 2017), reflecting broader international efforts to translate and adapt the principles across diverse educational contexts (Gäng-Pacifico & Rusconi, 2024). To understand how music can support trainees in using UDL, interview data from participants were gathered, and the UDL framework was used as an analytical lens.

To ensure rigorous implementation and reporting of UDL principles, this study employed the Universal Design for Learning Reporting Criteria (UDL RC), a methodological framework developed to support researchers in documenting how UDL is systematically applied (Rao et al., 2020). The UDL RC provides specific criteria for reporting UDL interventions to improve research quality and replicability. This research focuses specifically on the proactive and intentional design criterion, which emphasises designing curriculum and instructional experiences that anticipate learner needs from the outset rather than adding accommodations retrospectively. Interview data were analysed using UDL RC criteria to identify teacher-reported barriers to music integration, informing the design of music resources that address these challenges, applying specific UDL guidelines and checkpoints.

Students were recruited through a formal request to the institution for access, with the researcher presenting the research proposal directly to the whole cohort to ensure voluntary informed consent. Ten of the cohort (

Table 1. Demographic breakdown of interview participants.

Name (Pseudonym)	Undergraduate Degree	Instrument	Country of Origin
Layla	Engineering	None	UAE/Tanzania
Maya	Biotechnology	None	India
Huda	Science	Piano	UK
Sophie	Investment	Guitar	UAE/UK
Zara	Finance	None	Pakistan/Dubai
Emma	Physiotherapy	None	UAE/UK
Thandi	Finance	None	South Africa
Aisha	Textile Designing	None	Pakistan
Grace	Accounting	None	UK
Louise	MA Comparative Ed	None	UK

), all female students, volunteered to take part in semi-structured interviews. The remaining nine students chose not to participate in the study. Given the intensive nature of the PGCE programme, participation represented a significant time commitment for students managing demanding coursework and teaching placements. Following the formal on-campus requests, interviews were conducted online via Microsoft Teams, providing scheduling flexibility for the participants. All participants provided voluntary informed consent before interviews, and pseudonyms have been used to ensure anonymity (BERA, 2024). The interviews discussed musical backgrounds, perceptions of musicality, and confidence levels. While all participants reported having classroom-based music experience, only two had extended instrumental experience: Huda, who taught herself piano, and Sophie, who took formal guitar lessons, although neither continued playing these instruments into adulthood.

Semi-structured interviews were analysed using framework analysis (Ritchie & Spencer, 1994) selected over thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2022) because the study aimed to systematically map participant experiences against the established UDL framework, rather than generate new themes from the data. This approach involved: (1) familiarisation with the data on music experiences, (2) establishing UDLs analytical framework (3) systematically indexing participant responses against these UDL categories, (4) charting the indexed experiences and mapping them teacher resource design, (5) synthesising patterns to developing a music resource framework addressing teacher challenges through proactive and intentional design criteria (King-Sears et al., 2023; Rao et al., 2020).

Semi-structured interviews lasted approximately 30–45 min and followed a guide with three main sections: (1) personal musical background and experiences (sample question, “Tell me about your experience of music education in school”), (2) perceptions of music’s role in the curriculum (sample question, “What are your views about the place of music in the everyday primary classroom?”), and (3) perception of musical ability (sample questions, “Tell me about your own musical abilities,” “How do you believe someone becomes musical?”). The interview guide was developed based on previous research on teacher musical confidence (De Vries, 2013; Hennessy, 2000) and piloted with three recently qualified teachers, with refinements made to terminology for the UAE context. After piloting, refinements were made to British curricula terminology, such as “Key Stage” and “Public School”, to cater to those who had been through a different curriculum. The research design was reviewed and approved by the University’s ethics board.

4. Findings

Framework analysis of participant interviews revealed systematic patterns in attitudes towards music integration, based on past experiences and observations from their school placements. Using UDL’s three core principles as analytical categories (engagement, representation, action and expression), potential barriers to music teaching were mapped against a proactive and intentional design criteria for music integration. Throughout this section, specific checkpoints are parenthetically referenced (Figure 1).

4.1. Multiple Means of Engagement

UDL’s engagement principle focuses on motivating learners by welcoming their interests and sustaining their effort. Participants recognised music’s potential to engage students, but analysis also revealed their own negative experiences created significant barriers to implementing engagement strategies in their teaching.

4.1.1. Teacher Barriers

While multiple means of engagement should foster motivation and interest, participants described musicality as an innate trait rather than a skill that can be developed. When asked how people become musical, Thandi, Louise, and Maya mentioned that children are “born with it”. These beliefs indicated that the participants faced barriers to sustaining effort and persistence (8) because they believed they lacked this innate ability and did not identify as musical individuals. Huda described feeling socially excluded from formal music education, believing that instrument lessons were for a different social group rather than being universally accessible. This perception created a lasting barrier to her musical engagement, despite her later developing self-taught piano skills. Her example illustrates how perceived social barriers can persist even when individuals demonstrate musical capability.

Negative emotional associations with participants’ perceived abilities were directly related to the UDL checkpoint emotional capacity (9). These associations hindered engagement, primarily due to criticisms participants had received from others. Aisha described her music teacher as “scary” and only “rewarding the girl who learns it faster”. Similarly, Sophie described a formative experience with her guitar teacher that caused her to give up the instrument:

I was very scared to make a mistake. And then, if I did, he was like, “this is so easy, you should be picking this up perfectly”. And I just couldn’t wrap my head around it. So I just said, “Okay, now, I don’t want to do anymore”.

[Sophie]

Layla’s self-identification as “tone-deaf”, which she attributed to her children’s comments about her singing, demonstrates how negative self-perceptions seek confirmation through external validation, ultimately reinforcing avoidance of musical activities. Such emotional barriers formed by various previous experiences prevent general education teachers from incorporating music into their classrooms.

4.1.2. Classroom Possibilities

Despite the emotional and engagement barriers to using music, the participants identified areas across all three engagement guidelines that could support music in the primary classroom. Thandi and Huda both shared examples from school placements where background music was used to keep students calm, which in turn increased their willingness to persist in difficult tasks. Thandi’s students used headphones while working, demonstrating music’s role in creating personalised learning environments that support sustained attention (7.4). Zara also provided an example of using music as a “brain break” to help improve concentration, enhance meta-cognition, and increase self-awareness. Aisha additionally commented on music’s ability to “make it [learning] fun” and increase student happiness (7.3). Emma, Thandi, and Zara also commented on music in classroom transitions, showing the subject’s ability to structure a learning environment through routine audio cues that support organisation, a vital executive functioning skill, as outlined in the final row of the UDL guidelines. These opportunities will be further explored in the discussion section, which presents structured activities designed to enhance student and teacher engagement.

4.2. Multiple Means of Representation

The representation principle emphasises providing information through multiple modalities and formats. Despite understanding music’s value for representing information in multiple ways, participants reported knowledge deficits that prevented them from confidently using music as a representational tool.

4.2.1. Teacher Barriers

Many participants expressed a feeling that they lacked the necessary understanding to integrate music into their lessons. Aisha, Huda, and Thandi stated that to teach music, you should be an “expert” or at least “have played or taught [music] previously”. This perceived knowledge deficit limited their confidence in clarifying musical structures and vocabulary (2.1), supporting students in decoding music (2.2), or exploring the detailed features of music (3.2). These self-imposed limitations reflect internalised biases about music expertise. As Layla explained:

If I’m an engineer, I would have knowledge in science and all of that. But the basic knowledge we’d all have, by music, it feels like unless you have actual knowledge, then you can’t really teach it.

[Layla]

According to Louise and Zara, this perceived knowledge barrier is compounded by a limited vocabulary for discussing musical concepts, noting that music “sort of has more technical stuff to it” (Zara). This highlights how teachers underestimate their existing musical technical knowledge, resulting in a reluctance to provide the opportunity for multiple representations in their own classrooms.

4.2.2. Classroom Possibilities

The data revealed that participants understood the importance of music as a means to convey alternative representations of information. Sophie used an example of adapting a song from the Trolls movie to teach times tables, exemplifying building connections that make abstract mathematical concepts more accessible (2.5; 3.1). Grace explicitly articulated music’s memory enhancement function, recognising that information set to music becomes more retrievable, a principle supported by cognitive research (1.2; 2.5; 3.4). Zara noted how even the art teacher incorporated singing into her instruction:

She does not use a musical instrument but she whenever she has an instruction that she really wants the kids to follow she [sings] it in a musical tone… “tap tap tap and make it flat”. And I was so …. so many of them were just mumbling to themselves whispering to themselves “tap tap tap and make it flat” while doing their work”

[Zara]

These few instances showcase the range of subject enrichment examples, demonstrating participants’ recognition that musical elements can make most content more accessible through multiple media (2.5).

Taking music further, Aisha and Huda described how their schools organised a Maths Rock Star Day, where students dressed up as rock stars and participated in maths-related activities while listening to rock music (7.3). Grace observed a class assembly on World War II that also incorporated both costumes and musical elements (3.3). These examples demonstrate how musical representation could be integrated across multiple disciplines to support students in accessing and independently creating material that supports their learning.

4.3. Multiple Means of Action and Expression

Action and expression principles provide learners with multiple ways to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. Participants identified music as valuable for student expression but faced personal barriers, particularly performance anxieties, that limited their willingness to incorporate musical expression activities.

4.3.1. Teacher Barriers

Within action and expression, the most robust guideline, expression and communication (5) created the most significant barrier for teachers. Performance anxiety emerged as a critical consideration when designing lessons that incorporate music. Fear of judgement, particularly from upper primary students, revealed the need for resources that normalise musical play and experimentation (7.3). Additionally, the following responses highlight the need for teachers to address their own exclusion from music due to feeling marginalised for having poor musicality (6.5). Emma’s admitted she was “terrified,” while Sophie described her abilities as “atrocious”. These responses reflected a deep discomfort with their abilities and a limited understanding of how music is flexible and offers many entry points (4.1). Huda feared her students would laugh at her, illustrating how music’s capacity to expose vulnerability can create barriers to teacher participation in musical activities, rather than be a learning opportunity for both teachers and students.

Participants identified specific age limits for their music teaching confidence. Thandi felt comfortable only with children up to the age of five, Layla and Huda with children up to the age of seven, and Grace with children up to the age of ten. These age-specific limitations reveal how perceived social judgement creates developmental boundaries that restrict teaching approaches. Louise explains,

Towards the higher years, I think students don’t respond to it as naturally, and I think they actually might be a bit more awkward. They might feel awkward themselves trying to repeat or have it incorporated into their lesson.

[Louise]

This data aligns with the engagement barriers reported earlier, where participants described formative negative experiences that continue to impact their professional confidence. These findings demonstrate how UDL principles are interconnected and mutually reinforcing. Without role models demonstrating varied modes of expression, these teachers risk transmitting similar barriers to their students.

4.3.2. Classroom Possibilities

Despite their self-consciousness, participants recognised music’s potential for creating alternative pathways for student action and expression. Maya observed that singing allows students to “be themselves…they feel like they can be who they are when they’re singing”, highlighting music’s capacity for authentic self-expression (5.4). This supports challenging exclusionary practices (6.5) in the classroom by enabling students to express their linguistic, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds through music, as seen in Louise’s plans to “draw on the students’ musicality in the class”. Participants also demonstrated practical approaches to overcoming barriers. Grace intended to “bring in specialists from the music department” illustrating anticipating challenges (6.2), while many participants utilised assistive and accessible technologies (4.2), through songs and dances from YouTube and Google searches. These strategies model multiple tools for construction, composition, and creativity (5.2) for students, while addressing teacher limitations through accessible resources.

Participants also described ways music could support classroom learning that aligned with what Bresler (1998, p. 15) terms the “subservient approach” to arts integration, using music as a tool to access other subjects rather than valuing it as a discipline in its own right. Grace exemplified this perspective, explaining that she would use music as a “tool” to support learning objectives rather than as the primary lesson focus. Louise provided a specific example of this approach, describing how she connected body percussion activities to phonics instruction, allowing students to demonstrate their understanding of linguistic patterns through rhythmic physical expression while supporting language acquisition (4.1; 5.2; 5.3). While action and expression revealed personal insecurities for the participants, it was clear through their examples that they understood the importance of supporting students in using it to express their learning.

5. Discussion

In answering the first research question, the data revealed interconnected barriers within the three areas of the UDL. The largest barriers to integration included fixed mindsets about musical ability, performance anxiety, negative past experiences, and perceived knowledge deficits. Previous research provides clear pathways for addressing these challenges through well-designed interventions (Draper, 2024), and challenges the notion that music is innate, arguing that it is accessible to everyone (Hallam & Prince, 2003; Mills, 1995). This means that these generalist trainee teachers should be capable of facilitating engaging musical experiences when properly supported (Henley, 2017). Indeed, their responses also revealed an understanding of the importance and utility of integrating music into their classrooms.

Performance anxiety can be mitigated through scaffolded experiences that offer small, manageable tasks (Holden & Button, 2006; Seddon & Biasutti, 2008), allowing gradual performance building rather than high-stress performance situations. This echoes the gradual release of UDL, which structures student learning from access to support and builds independent executive functioning throughout the framework. During the PGCE course there are reflective opportunities that provide space to reframe negative past experiences and reconsider the specialist/generalist dichotomy, similar to interventions discussed by Welch and Henley (2014). Other researchers have shown how a carefully structured bank of resources can support trainee teachers in building their music teaching capacity without assuming prior expertise (Biasutti et al., 2015). Therefore, building on these ideas to reduce the barriers general education teachers face when using music in a UDL-based classroom, this discussion will address the second research question.

5.1. Five-Step Music Resources

By triangulating the interview data, UDL principles, and literature on professional development, multiple music resources were developed within a systematic five-step framework. Each step addresses the psychological and pedagogical challenges faced by generalist teachers approaching music education. The resources were also designed using the vertical and horizontal axes of UDL to address both the identified teacher barriers while providing multiple pathways to musical engagement in the classroom for varying student and adult confidence levels. They mirror UDL’s progressive structure, supporting teacher development from initial access to independence while providing students with multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression.

The UDL framework accommodates multiple levels of integration, thereby expanding opportunities for incorporating meaningful music into classroom practices. The developed resources are purposely open-ended, in alignment with Burron and Pegg’s (2021) observation that teachers prefer high-context resources that are adaptable for personalisation. Due to the findings showing trepidation about teaching music, which mirror previous research (Biasutti et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013; Holden & Button, 2006), teachers should be encouraged to adapt each resource to their comfort and ability level until they gain confidence. The five-step framework is broken down below (

Table 2. Mapped summary of the five-step framework.

Step	Goal	UDL connection
(1) Music Exposure	Expose students and teachers to music through concrete tasks requiring minimal musical expertise	Principle: Multiple Means of Engagement Guidelines: 7.2 (Optimise relevance and authenticity) Checkpoints: Welcoming interests & identities
(2) Musical Discussion and Analysis.	Use guided prompts to build musical vocabulary and analytical frameworks	Principle: Multiple Means of Representation Guidelines: 2.1 (Clarify vocabulary and symbols) Checkpoints: Language & symbols, building knowledge
(3) Creative Task	Scaffold creative opportunities with clear parameters and manageable choices	Principle: Multiple Means of Action & Expression Guidelines: 5.2 (Multiple tools for construction), 7.1 (Optimise choice and autonomy) Checkpoints: Supported engagement, expression & communication
(4) Practical Implementation	Provide explicit guidance for low-risk classroom performance and application	Principle: Multiple Means of Action & Expression Guidelines: 5.3 (Build fluencies with graduated support) Checkpoints: Strategy development, interaction
(5) Task Consolidation	Encourage metacognitive processing, adaptation, and teacher ownership of pedagogy	Principle: Multiple Means of Engagement Guidelines: 9.3 (Promote reflection), 5.2 (Multiple tools for creativity) Checkpoints: Executive function, emotional capacity

), along with example resources in Appendix A.

• Step 1: Music Exposure

The first step introduces students and teachers to the topic through a concrete task that requires minimal background musical expertise (7.1; 7.4). Some teachers may choose not to proceed beyond the first step, as it is designed to provide maximum accessibility and welcoming options for engagement with the learning goal. Others might use these resources as a starting point for a lesson and choose to adapt all five steps based on their comfort and confidence in music.

Using the example of the Parody Songs resource (Appendix A), step one requires using YouTube to listen to examples of parody songs, covers of familiar music with comedic or satirical lyrics. YouTube is an accessible technology that enables teachers to easily find and share examples without requiring specialised equipment or music libraries (4.2; 7.2). Starting with a manageable task (Holden & Button, 2006) allows novice or experienced teachers to begin incorporating music into the classroom. Accessible examples create low-threshold entry points that counteract any fixed mindset that believes incorporating music requires expertise. The activity lends itself most to an English or creative writing task, exploring humour and wordplay, though it can easily be adapted for other topics (7.2; 1.3).

• Step 2: Music Discussion and Analysis

The second step utilises guided prompts to facilitate discussions about music, offering teachers various engagement strategies that enhance vocabulary for musical understanding (2.1;2.3). In the Parody Songs resource, teachers guide students to discuss what makes these parodies effective, using simple one-word adjectives such as “humorous”, “clever”, or “strange”. With the potential to lead to more descriptive adjectives such as “catchy” or “melodic”, this is a supported entry point for students and teachers to gain knowledge through accessible vocabulary that connects students’ existing understanding of creative expression while allowing the exploration of music terminology (3.1; 3.2).

When teachers are better able to understand how music is connected to learning goals in the curriculum, they are often more successful at integrating it into their lessons (Russell-Bowie, 2010). This understanding can be supported by providing scaffolded entry points that use familiar cultural references (Armes et al., 2022), and supported vocabulary or knowledge. Rather than attempting to turn generalists into specialists, collaborative discussions and analysis create a third pathway that accounts for pedagogical strengths while providing musical scaffolding.

• Step 3: Creative Task

The third step offers further challenge and support by scaffolding creative opportunities with clear parameters (5.2; 7.1), responding to participants’ anxiety about open-ended musical tasks. The Parody Songs resource exemplifies this balance between creative freedom and supportive scaffolding (7.1; 8.2). The resource breaks the process into manageable decisions, rather than overwhelming the teacher or student. With an extensive library of backing tracks available on YouTube, students choose a ready-made song, allowing them to engage in meaningful creative expression while focusing on lyrical adaptation. Students can be encouraged to utilise any existing musical skills to enhance their parodies (4.2; 5.2). This design reflects Bresler’s (1998) recommendation for meaningful arts integration that maintains subject integrity, while addressing performance anxiety and knowledge barriers identified in the research.

• Step 4: Practical Application

The fourth step involves practical application with explicit guidance (5.3; 8.3), utilising a low-risk environment to address concerns about classroom performance (CAST, 2024). In the Parody Songs resource, students work in groups to brainstorm lyrics for their chosen songs and practice their work-in-progress in front of the class. This step helps consolidate learning, which teachers can facilitate through discussions and checking learning points. It also offers actionable approaches to deal with previously reported teacher performance anxiety while recognising diverse forms of creative expression in the classroom (1.3; 5.4). This structured approach to performance differs from traditional music education paradigms that often emphasise performance as an end goal. Instead, it recommends prioritising musical agency (Hogle, 2021) by creating safe emotional pathways for expression through group work, practice sessions, and the inclusion of students’ varied creative strengths (7.4; 8.3).

• Step 5: Task Consolidation

The final step encourages metacognitive processing and adaptation, encouraging the teachers to consolidate learning and monitor progress in the class (6.4; 9.3). In the Parody Songs resource, the class concludes with groups performing to the instrumental tracks (by typing the song name into YouTube and adding “karaoke”). Teachers can revisit what makes certain parodies effective, discuss how students overcame creative challenges, and discuss what they learnt about rhythm, rhyme, and musical structure (6.4; 9.2; 9.3). This supports Garrett’s (2019) emphasis on teacher ownership of musical pedagogy. Step five prompts discussion about how musical ideas can be captured and communicated in various ways, requiring both teachers and students to evaluate the effectiveness of their creative approaches (6.4; 9.3).

5.2. Implications and Limitations

This study has several limitations. The resources developed have not yet been tested, so their effectiveness in building musical confidence remains unknown. Future research should investigate whether teachers can successfully progress through the five-step framework and whether this increases their classroom music integration. Second, the small sample size (n = 10) from a single institution limits generalisability to other teacher training contexts. The external researcher status also restricted full cohort access, potentially affecting recruitment.

Finally, the intentionally flexible design of the resources, while accommodating diverse teacher abilities, creates challenges for systematic evaluation. The open-ended nature that makes resources adaptable also makes it difficult to measure implementation fidelity and compare outcomes across different users.

6. Conclusions

This study addresses the confidence gap that limits music integration by generalist teachers. By applying the full UDL principles, guidelines and checkpoints in line with the UDL-RC’s proactive and intentional design approach (Figure 2), we developed a systematic framework for creating music teaching resources (Rao et al., 2020). The analysis demonstrated UDL’s utility as both an analytical and development tool, resulting in resources that provided multiple pathways to musical engagement for teachers and students with diverse confidence levels and backgrounds.

The five-step framework emerged as a direct response to participants’ perceived barriers, with each step targeting specific challenges. It further shows how the UDL framework is multipurposed and can support teachers in their own learning and development, allowing teachers to move between the vertical and horizontal axes to adapt the resources to address both their internal barriers and classroom barriers to learning for diverse student populations.

This approach accommodates rather than attempts to eliminate teacher anxiety, maintaining musical integrity (Bresler, 1998), while acknowledging generalists’ pedagogical realities. The resources support both teacher confidence and learner agency through UDL’s principles of engagement, representation, and action and expression, creating a practical bridge between the specialist–generalist divide in music education. By addressing the barriers that limit generalist teachers’ musical engagement, the framework ultimately supports the broader goal of creating more inclusive, engaging, and multifaceted learning environments for all students.