Cultivating Inclusive Classroom Practices in Special Education

1. Introduction

The purpose of this Special Issue was to gather recent and high-quality research reports which integrated or investigated a socio-ecological approach towards inclusive teaching and learning practices in special education. As editors, we used Bronfenbrenner’s original ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) as a fundamental influence on how we understand and apply a socio-ecological approach. Thus, we understand a socio-ecological approach as one that acknowledges and incorporates contextual factors, as well as the inter-relational aspects between contexts, both of which are quintessential in attaining successful learning for learners in special education. This is important in order to prevent a predominant medical deficit model where an individual and specialized intervention approach is primarily employed to remedy the deficit-within-the-child. Research reports that the medical model seems to be still preferred and applied in education environments (Zaks, 2024; Nel, 2023; Walton & Engelbrecht, 2022; Donohue & Bornman, 2014; Booth, 2011). Such an approach can result in stereotyping and “othering” a child with a disability. Without disregarding the importance of individualized and specialized support, it is essential to acknowledge that all children enter school from diverse home and community contexts, bringing with them unique vulnerabilities, characteristics, and socio-cultural identities. Moreover, integral to a socio-ecological approach are value-driven inclusive practices built on access, equality, rights, participation, respect for diversity, acceptance, tolerance, non-violence, trust, and compassion (Booth, 2011). In essence, we believe that a socio-ecological model enables teachers to better understand complex influences, interactions, and interrelationships in terms of the learner and all the other systems associated with the learner.

In this context, inclusive education remains both a global priority and an evolving challenge, particularly within special education contexts where diverse learner needs demand innovative, evidence-based classroom practices. This Special Issue brings together fifteen impactful studies that collectively deepen our understanding of how inclusive classrooms can be cultivated, supported, and sustained across a variety of educational settings worldwide.

The fifteen featured papers offer international perspectives, addressing inclusion in both the majority world—also referred to as low- and middle-income countries (e.g., South Africa, Indonesia, Thailand, and Kazakhstan)—and the minority world, or high-income countries (e.g., Germany, Spain, and Portugal). They highlight a range of critical themes, from intervention programs that foster autonomy in young learners to the importance of teacher efficacy, community collaboration, inclusive policy, and systemic support mechanisms. Together, these studies underscore the essential role of differentiated pedagogical strategies, strategic intersectoral partnerships, value co-creation, and ongoing professional development as foundational pillars of inclusive education.

Importantly, the studies span the full educational lifespan—from motor development in preschool, to peer-supported communication in primary schools, to the shaping of inclusive attitudes in higher education—demonstrating that inclusion must be cultivated early, sustained consistently, and enacted intentionally across all levels of education.

2. Overview of Papers

We present highlights from the 15 papers included in this Special Issue, and conclude with several practical implications for policy and practice:

Gámez-Calvo, Muñoz-Jiménez & Gozalo

This quantitative study investigated the influence of career selection and academic progression on university students’ attitudes toward disability and the associated impact on their future professional practices. Significant variations in attitudes toward disability among the different disciplines and academic years were found. Importantly, attitudes improved significantly across all the disciplines from the first to the final year. Educational pathways, tailored coursework, and practical experiences in fostering positive attitudes were highlighted as important in yielding positive attitudes.

Uria-Olaizola, Yurrebaso Atutxa & León-Guereño

Through a systematic review, this article reports on studies that researched the impact of programs aimed at improving learners’ attitudes toward peers with disabilities in primary and secondary education. It was found that awareness programs had a generally positive effect on learners’ perceptions of their peers with disabilities. However, the awareness of intellectual and developmental disabilities remained lower than that of physical, visual, or hearing disabilities. From the review it appears that the most effective strategies to improve attitudes involved direct interaction and information sharing, as well as simulation techniques. Challenges include the engagement of educational staff to ensure the long-term sustainability of these programs within the curriculum.

Mbelu & Maguvhe

This study employed a qualitative study with semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and observations. The findings highlight the importance of adopting a socio-ecological classroom paradigm that pivots away from deficit models to foster inclusive education by addressing power dynamics between teachers and parents. It underscores how whole-school approaches and community collaboration are critical for cultivating supportive, inclusive environments for learners with disabilities.

Stitzinger

This quantitative study used a micro-sequential analysis of videos. The research shows the benefits of linguistic and communicative diversity in primary classrooms, demonstrating how peer interactions can support children with and without language impairments. The findings offer actionable principles for teachers to nurture inclusive language support, thereby enhancing communicative inclusion in diverse classrooms.

Masuku, Khumalo & Moroe

The scoping review employed for this study exposes the unique barriers that learners with deaf-blindness experience in inclusive settings, such as the availability of educational settings; accessibility to the physical and social environment, as well as assistive devices; acceptability by peers and teachers and the preparedness of teachers; and the adaptability of classroom strategies. The recommendations advocate for classroom strategies that apply intentional, specialized accommodations across all educational phases. This study also stresses the necessity of collaborative, resourceful strategies to enable learners with dual sensory impairments to thrive inclusively.

Manis & Ferreira

This is a qualitative instrumental case study using participatory reflection and action. The findings demonstrate how teacher collaboration and shared learning among teachers in full-service inclusive schools can overcome resource constraints and improve inclusive education practices for learners with visual impairments. It highlights a socio-ecological approach to fostering teacher support systems essential for sustaining inclusive classrooms.

Naudé, Kang, Moretti, Rocha, Maxwell & Bornman

This scoping review reveals the limited application of the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) in African educational settings for children with disability. It also emphasizes that environmental barriers to inclusion must be addressed. This review calls for strategic implementation of the ICF framework to enhance inclusive education for children with disabilities across Africa.

Dichaba, Omidire & Sefotho

This qualitative study, using interviews and focus group discussions, explores how early identification and specialized support can empower learners with mild intellectual developmental disorders in mainstream schools regarding their career development. However, teachers report limited training and self-efficacy to support these learners. The recommendations advocate for stronger collaboration between parents, teachers, and principals as well as capacity building of stakeholders to promote inclusive career development practices.

Masuku & Marumolo

A qualitative study using focus groups and semi-structured interviews was employed to investigate the perceptions of parents and teachers regarding inclusive education for children with complex communication needs in early childhood education settings. The findings revealed mistrust in inclusive education and a preference for special education. The reasons for that are a fear of stigma, discrimination, exclusion, bullying, and exclusionary teaching practices. Gaps were also identified in teachers’ knowledge of communication disorders, their training on inclusive education, and the availability of teaching aids and assistive devices. The study highlights the urgent need for training, resources, and attitudinal shifts to cultivate truly inclusive early childhood settings for children with complex communication needs.

Du Preez

In a qualitative study using focus groups, the researcher introduced the Sensory Classroom Teacher Questionnaire (SCTQ). The SCTQ is a holistic tool designed to help teachers create sensory and ergonomic friendly, inclusive environments that support learners with ADHD and sensory integration/processing challenges. The findings were used to refine the SCTQ, ensuring that it is practically and developmentally appropriate, as well as culturally, linguistically, contextually, and socio-economically relevant. The final results showed that the SCTQ supports sensory ergonomic practices, raises awareness of ADHD and sensory integration/processing challenges, and supports both learners’ potential and teachers’ well-being, contributing to a more sustainable and positive educational experience.

Gomes, Antunes, Sales, Marques & Oliveira

This quantitative intervention study demonstrates how the contribution of motricity—in particular motor games—can effectively foster autonomy in preschool children with and without special education needs. The outcomes highlighted the value of differentiated, playful interventions that promote inclusion from early childhood. This study’s focus on motor skill development aligns with cultivating inclusive classrooms by supporting active participation and independence among all learners.

Malahlela & Johnson

A qualitative study using in-depth interviews was employed for this research to investigate the application of inclusive education policies in South African mainstream educational institutions, focusing on promoting the acceptance and recognition of learners with disabilities. The findings reveal that while South African teachers possess theoretical knowledge of inclusive education policies, they often lack self-efficacy to implement their knowledge effectively, underscoring the urgent need for ongoing professional development and collaborative support between mainstream and special schools. These findings emphasize the importance of strengthening teacher capacity to create truly inclusive classroom environments.

Assanbayev & Makoelle

This qualitative, collaborative, action research study explored classroom practices focusing on the promotion of inclusion of adult learners with disabilities in Kazakhstan’s Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Institutions. The findings highlight gaps in reasonable inclusive support for adult learners with disabilities and show that these learners are advocating for a comprehensive review and improvement of inclusive classroom practices in lifelong learning settings. A comprehensive review of inclusive practices in these institutions was recommended. Some practices that could promote inclusion in TVET classrooms were also suggested.

Narot & Kiettikunwong

A mixed methods study utilizing surveys and interviews, this study explores parents’ perceptions of school management practices for children with special needs, revealing positive views toward classroom management and teachers. However, concerns were identified regarding teachers’ ability to effectively support learners with special needs, which has led to hesitancy in collaboration with parents. The recommendations underscore the critical role of communication and teacher development, as well as district support, in fostering trusting partnerships for successful inclusive classrooms.

Narot & Kiettikunwong

This qualitative study employed in-depth interviews and focus groups to investigate the educational management of a municipality in Thailand through the lens of value co-creation, aiming to identify gaps in real-life practices. The findings reveal that the municipality is increasingly recognizing the potential of value co-creation in enhancing learner outcomes, particularly for those with special educational needs. However, financial and socio-economic challenges hinder the effective delivery of special education services, posing significant challenges to aligning value co-creation strategies with the goals of special education. Reengineering the education budget and increasing investments to support the value co-creation process and sustain special education services were recommended.

3. Conclusions

The three review studies in this Special Issue offer critical insights into the current evidence base shaping inclusive education policy and practice. They examine how systemic frameworks, awareness interventions, and tailored support strategies influence the inclusion of learners with diverse needs. Whether through mapping effective awareness-raising programs in schools, identifying the barriers faced by learners who are deafblind, or analyzing the limited but promising application of the ICF framework across African contexts, these reviews illuminate key enablers and persistent gaps in the pursuit of inclusive classrooms. Importantly, they emphasize the need for evidence-informed, long-term strategies that move beyond surface-level inclusion toward deeper, systemic transformation. Together, these studies strengthen the knowledge foundation for inclusive education by synthesizing what works, where challenges lie, and how context-sensitive, multi-level approaches can support meaningful participation for all learners.

The three quantitative studies by Gámez-Calvo et al., Stitzinger, and Gomes et al. highlight that inclusive education must be cultivated across all levels of the educational system—from preschool to university. While their foci differ—from fostering autonomy through motor games to supporting peer language interactions and shifting professional attitudes toward disability—they share a commitment to embedding inclusion into everyday educational practices. Together, they underscore that inclusive classrooms are built not merely through policy, but through daily interaction, participation, and thoughtfully designed experiences.

The eight qualitative studies, as well as the mixed-method study, provide rich, grounded perspectives on cultivating inclusive classroom practices across diverse contexts. They emphasize that inclusive education is not a singular intervention, but a relational, systemic, and context-responsive process. Whether through fostering teacher collaboration in under-resourced schools, embedding sensory ergonomics in early-grade classrooms, or applying value co-creation strategies, these studies highlight the need for co-designed, participatory approaches. Together, they demonstrate that meaningful inclusion requires more than policy—it demands transformation in attitudes, teacher capacity, infrastructure, and community involvement. This body of work expands our understanding of inclusive education as both a human rights imperative and a deeply relational practice.

Taken together, the 15 papers in this Special Issue spanning review, quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods methodologies—paint a multifaceted picture of what it means to cultivate inclusive classroom practices in special education through a socio-ecological lens. They demonstrate that inclusion is not a static endpoint but a dynamic, evolving process that must be rooted in evidence, informed by local contexts, and sustained through collaborative effort. Across diverse global settings, the papers highlight that inclusive education thrives where there is intentionality: in teacher training, policy implementation, classroom design, peer relationships, and family-school-community partnerships. Most importantly, they collectively affirm that meaningful inclusion is built on the belief that every learner has value and deserves to participate fully—and that realizing this vision requires both structural change and daily commitment.

These papers collectively advance the discourse on cultivating inclusive classrooms through research-informed, context-sensitive practices. They invite teachers, policymakers, and researchers to embrace inclusion not only as policy but as a lived educational reality—one that requires commitment, creativity, and collaboration.

We hope this Special Issue will inspire continued dialogue, innovation, and action toward building inclusive educational systems where all learners can thrive.

In addition to the lessons learnt from the research findings reported by the 15 papers we also identified implications for practice that we believe are important to consider for the successful implementation of a socio-ecological approach to inclusive education. These are outlined as follows:

4. Implications for Practice

Strengthen teacher training and support:

Across the 15 papers, a clear need for ongoing professional development is evident. This entails equipping teachers with practical strategies for inclusive teaching—particularly for learners with complex needs (e.g., intellectual disabilities, deaf-blindness, and complex communication needs). Capacity building must extend beyond theory to include hands-on, context-relevant training.

Foster collaborative, whole-school approaches:

Inclusion cannot rest on individual teachers alone. Schools should adopt socio-ecological or whole-school frameworks that engage all stakeholders—teachers, parents, therapists, administrators, and learners—in shared responsibility for inclusive practices.

Prioritize early childhood inclusion:

Interventions at the preschool and early childhood levels (e.g., through motor play, sensory ergonomics, or augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)) show promising outcomes. Inclusive education must start early, with support structures built from the ground up. However, inclusion is not limited to this category of learners—and should be prioritized throughout their lifespan.

Create responsive and sensory-inclusive classrooms:

Thoughtful classroom design—including sensory ergonomics—can promote participation, self-regulation, and learning, especially for learners with ADHD or sensory integration challenges. Tools like the SCTQ can guide practical implementation.

Leverage peer interactions and attitude shifts:

Inclusive practices benefit from structured opportunities for positive peer interaction and mutual support. Schools and teacher education programs should actively cultivate inclusive attitudes and relationships among learners.

Adapt strategies to contexts and resource levels:

From under-resourced South African schools to language diverse German schools, Thai municipalities, and Kazakhstani TVET settings, the papers all affirm that inclusive practices must be adapted to local realities. Innovation, flexibility, and community involvement are key to overcoming systemic barriers.

Use data and frameworks to inform decisions:

Applying evidence-based frameworks such as the ICF can help practitioners assess and plan for inclusion more holistically, though greater dissemination and contextualization are needed, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.

Engage families as partners:

Effective inclusion relies on open communication and power sharing between schools and families. Shifting toward value co-creation and shared decision-making can improve trust and outcomes for learners with disabilities.