Educational Technology in Teacher Training: A Systematic Review of Competencies, Skills, Models, and Methods

Abstract

In the digital era, integrating technology into education is essential to meet contemporary educational demands. This systematic review examines the competencies and skills in educational technology required from in-service teachers serving in elementary, middle, and high schools, alongside the training models and methods implemented over the past decade. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search was conducted in the Scopus, WOS, and ERIC databases, focusing on studies published between 2014 and 2025. A total of 82 studies were selected based on predefined inclusion criteria. The review analyzed competencies, skills, training models, and methods, identifying prevailing trends in teacher training for educational technology. The review identified seven key competencies, emphasizing skills such as using software, educational applications, and platforms, as well as virtual collaboration. The TPACK model emerged as the predominant framework for teacher training, encompassing various methods, including professional learning communities and Problem-Based Learning. A progressive and structured approach is necessary to develop teachers’ competencies, encompassing both basic technical skills and the adoption of emerging technologies. Continuous and context-specific teacher training in educational technology is critical for sustainable integration and pedagogical transformation. Barriers such as limited infrastructure and resistance to change highlight the need for strong institutional support and mentorship. Future research should aim to expand to diverse educational settings to validate and extend these findings.

1. Introduction

In this digital era, integrating technology into education has become essential for educational systems to respond effectively to the demands of an increasingly connected society. Teachers play a pivotal role in facilitating learning, guiding students, and enhancing their educational experiences. Butler et al. (2017) emphasize that “teachers must be trained in 21st-century skills and in the effective use of digital technologies to transform teaching and learning” (p. 339). Such training is critical not only for teachers’ continuous professional development but also to equip them to lead pedagogical innovation in dynamic educational environments.

Recent advancements, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, have led to a rapid and widespread transition to digital teaching. This sudden shift exposed significant gaps in teachers’ preparedness for virtual environments, evidencing the urgent need to update and strengthen their technological competencies. Max et al. (2023) report that many educators felt overwhelmed by the demands of asynchronous teaching, task overload, and challenges in information management. Moreover, the growing integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into educational settings requires teachers to acquire advanced technological skills and adapt their pedagogical practices accordingly. As Mustafa et al. (2024) emphasize, the post-pandemic surge in AI adoption has particularly highlighted the need for adequate teacher training in designing and implementing AI-based tools, necessitating substantial shifts in traditional teaching methods. This reflects the continuous evolution of skills required for effective teaching in contemporary classrooms.

While various frameworks—such as the UNESCO ICT Competency Framework (UNESCO, 2018), DigCompEdu (Redecker, 2017), and the ISTE Standards (International Society for Technology in Education, 2016)—have been designed to support teachers’ digital competencies, most existing literature primarily focuses on pre-service teachers or wider educational populations. These frameworks offer valuable foundations by defining key competencies and progressive achievement levels; however, they were established before major disruptive events, notably the COVID-19 pandemic and the rapid emergence of Artificial Intelligence in educational contexts. Therefore, they may not fully address the evolving professional development needs of in-service teachers working in primary, middle, and secondary education. This systematic review aims to fill this gap by synthesizing and organizing recent research on the competencies, skills, training models, and methods most relevant for today’s in-service teachers. The goal is to provide researchers, educators, policymakers, and school administrators with practical insights into current trends and effective approaches in teacher training for educational technology integration.

This goal is also consistent with global efforts such as Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which promotes inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all. As Li et al. (2018) emphasize, the full realization of SDG 4 remains uneven across countries. Education is not only a fundamental human right but also a key driver of sustainable development, poverty reduction, and inequality, as well as promoting gender equity and fostering economic and social progress. Achieving these goals requires systemic actions, such as providing free and accessible education, improving infrastructure, and implementing digital transformation, including the development of teacher competencies in educational technology.

Competencies can be defined as an integrated set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that teachers must develop to effectively integrate technology in their pedagogical practices (UNESCO, 2018). Competencies encompass broader aspects that involve integrating ICT into the educational process and facilitating strategic and contextualized pedagogical use. On the other hand, skills are observable and specific abilities that enable teachers to perform real-world tasks and form the basis for more general competencies (Hämäläinen et al., 2021).

Models, which provide a conceptual framework integrating content, pedagogy, and technology, guide the development of these competencies. For instance, Mishra and Koehler (2006) proposed the TPACK model, which outlines the types of knowledge required for the effective application of educational technology. Teachers who understand this model recognize that technology can facilitate students’ deep thinking and learning (Saubern et al., 2020). They also acknowledge that combining content, pedagogy, and technology knowledge coherently is essential for the successful integration of technology into teaching (Koehler et al., 2013). This model, along with the UNESCO ICT Competency Framework for Teachers, establishes a robust theoretical structure that guides teacher training in an increasingly digitalized environment.

Furthermore, methods are specific ways of implementing models in teacher training, fundamental for translating theories and conceptual frameworks into effective teaching and learning practices. The TPACK model does not specify which method should be used, but Problem-Based Learning (PBL) enables teachers to utilize their technological skills in real-life classroom situations, thereby encouraging active, student-centered learning (Savery, 2006). Similarly, blended learning combines face-to-face and online teaching, offering flexibility that adapts to different educational contexts and the needs of both teachers and students. These methods facilitate not only the acquisition of technological competencies but also experimentation with new teaching and learning methods, allowing teachers to assess their effectiveness in real time.

This systematic review specifically targets in-service teachers in basic, middle, and secondary education, recognizing that this professional group requires tailored approaches to technology integration. Effective and critical use of ICT from an early age is essential for students, as it not only enhances learning but also prepares them to fully participate in a digital society (Gülbahar, 2007). However, as Ivanishchenko et al. (2024) emphasize, integrating ICT in education must strike a balance between digital engagement and opportunities for students to develop social skills and engage in meaningful human interactions. Consequently, teachers need comprehensive training methods and models that support both digital learning outcomes and students’ social development (UNESCO, 2018).

Research Aims and Questions

Considering the existing research gaps and emerging educational challenges, this review aims to identify and synthesize the competencies and skills in educational technology essential for in-service teachers, and to analyze the training models and methods implemented over the last decade. To address these objectives, this study is guided by two primary research questions:

Question A: What are the competencies and skills in educational technology that in-service teachers in basic, middle, and secondary education must develop to respond to current educational needs?

Question B: What models and methods of teacher training have been used in the last decade to develop these competencies and skills?

2. Method

Following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines (Page et al., 2020) helps improve the quality and openness of literature reviews, find and fix biases, make sure that studies can be updated, and make it easier to compare and understand results from different studies. It provides a strict rule-based process that clearly defines what studies are included, searches through all relevant literature, and critically evaluates the methodological quality of the chosen studies to ensure the validity of the results, which can be further checked.

2.1. Information Sources

We conducted the literature search in three reputable academic databases: Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), and ERIC. These databases were selected due to their extensive academic coverage, rigorous peer-review standards, and relevance to educational research. By considering multiple sources, this study ensures a comprehensive identification of relevant literature. To ensure the currency and applicability of the findings, the search was limited to articles published between 2014 and 2025.

2.2. Search Strategies

The search strategy explicitly combined key terms grouped into four main categories: (1) in-service teacher training (e.g., “in-service teacher training”, “teacher professional development”), (2) competencies and skills (e.g., “competencies”, “skills”, “abilities”), (3) educational technology (e.g., “educational technology”, “ICT”, “technology in education”), and (4) training methods and models (e.g., “methods”, “approaches”, “strategies”, “techniques”, “models”). These terms were systematically combined to ensure comprehensive coverage of literature addressing technology-related competencies and skills required by in-service teachers.

The precise search string used in the databases was (“in-service teacher training” OR “in-service teacher education” OR “teacher skills” OR “teacher professional development” OR “teacher improvement” OR “teacher preparation”) AND (“competencies” OR “skills” OR “abilities” OR “proficiencies”) AND (“educational technology” OR “technology in education” OR “ICT”) AND (“methods” OR “approaches” OR “strategies” OR “techniques” OR “models”). Providing this explicit search equation facilitates reproducibility and transparency for future research.

2.3. Selection Process

Using the defined search equation from above, the initial search across the Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), and ERIC databases prompted 593 potential articles. Automatic database filters were first applied to limit the results to publications from the last decade (2014–2025) and to select only peer-reviewed journal articles, resulting in a reduced number of 249 records. The detailed steps and outcomes of this systematic search and selection process are illustrated in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1).

Next, titles and abstracts were screened to verify explicit or implicit relevance to the topics of educational technology, digital competencies, or ICT integration. This screening process resulted in the exclusion of 122 studies, and an additional 11 articles were excluded due to retrieval issues, leaving 116 articles for full-text review.

Further exclusion criteria were established and systematically applied during full-text assessment:

Criterion 1: Studies were excluded if they addressed pre-service teachers instead of in-service teachers (13 articles excluded).

Criterion 2: Studies were excluded if they did not represent empirical research, such as systematic reviews, conceptual studies, editorials, or responses (11 articles excluded).

Criterion 3: Studies were excluded if they focused exclusively on educational levels outside basic, middle, or secondary education, such as preschool or higher education (10 articles excluded).

After applying these explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria, a final sample of 82 articles was obtained for analysis. This selection process is summarized in detail in the updated PRISMA flow diagram (see Figure 1), which enhances transparency and reproducibility and ensures the validity of the review findings.

2.4. The Process of Collecting Data

We used an Excel matrix for systematic data extraction, organization, and coding. This tool facilitated comparative analysis and the identification of thematic patterns across studies. For each article, the following fields were recorded: research methodology, training methods, theoretical models applied, study results, conclusions, identified competencies and skills, and reported challenges. This structured approach ensured consistency in data analysis and enabled a comprehensive synthesis that aligned with the review’s objectives.

2.5. Risk of Bias Assessment and Quality Appraisal

There might be a slight bias in our findings, as three studies focused on vocational or technical education teachers (Diao & Yang, 2021; Adegbenro & Olugbara, 2019; Jamil et al., 2024), and five studies included both in-service and pre-service teachers in their sample (Abduvalieva et al., 2024; Wahono et al., 2022; Ahadi et al., 2021; Strycker, 2020; Shaffer et al., 2015).

Nonetheless, quality assurance in this review was anchored in three main strategies. First, all selected studies were drawn from high-impact, peer-reviewed journals indexed in Scopus, Web of Science, and ERIC databases, which are known for their rigorous editorial and methodological standards. This initial filtering provided a robust baseline of academic quality.

Second, strict inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied throughout the selection process. Only empirical studies directly addressing in-service teacher training in educational technology were included. Conceptual papers, reviews, and studies unrelated to the defined population or educational level were excluded.

Third, the relevance of each article to the research questions was verified during full-text screening, ensuring that only those studies contributing meaningfully to the review’s purpose were retained. This process aligns with practices in social science literature reviews, where source credibility, methodological transparency, and thematic alignment are prioritized for quality appraisal.

2.6. Data Analysis

The data analysis process was conducted in structured stages to ensure both quantitative breadth and qualitative depth. A bibliometric analysis of the 82 selected articles was conducted, examining the annual distribution of publications, the disciplinary focus of the journals, and the geographical locations where the studies were conducted. These indicators provided a contextual understanding of the evolution and global reach of research on teacher training in educational technology.

In parallel, we conducted a qualitative content analysis focusing on the competencies and skills identified as essential for in-service teachers. The analysis involved coding the frequency of key terms explicitly or implicitly labeled as competencies or skills in each study. Similar terms were unified into broader categories, resulting in the identification of seven core competency areas, each comprising multiple sub-skills.

Finally, we performed a systematic review and synthesized the theoretical models and training methods implemented in the reviewed studies. The analysis examined the relationship between these elements and the reported outcomes, offering a deeper understanding of how teacher training frameworks impact the development of digital competencies. This stage also allowed for the identification of prevailing pedagogical approaches and conceptual trends in the field.

3. Results

3.1. Bibliometric Analysis

The bibliometric analysis reveals a significant growth in publications related to teacher training in educational technology over the past decade, with a notable increase following the pandemic. This interest has persisted over the past two years, establishing itself as a relevant topic (See Figure 2).

3.1.1. Distribution of Articles by Subject Area

The reviewed documents primarily cover the social sciences (54.7%) and computer sciences (16.9%), indicating the interdisciplinary nature of teacher training in educational technology. Figure 3 illustrates this distribution, emphasizing the need to integrate social and technological perspectives to fully understand its impact and implementation. Additionally, these trends highlight the importance of addressing the topic from different disciplines to respond to the demands of contemporary educational systems.

3.1.2. Geographic Distribution of the Studies

Most studies originate from regions with high levels of technological integration in education, such as Europe, Asia, and North America. As shown in Figure 4, this suggests a correlation between technological development and research in this field.

3.2. Competencies and Skills in Educational Technology

3.2.1. Competencies That In-Service Teachers in Basic, Middle, and Secondary Education Must Develop

This systematic review identified seven key competencies that in-service teachers must develop to effectively integrate educational technology into their pedagogical practice. These competencies were selected based on their frequency across the analyzed studies (n = 82), their relevance to contemporary digital classrooms, and their alignment with the evolving demands of 21st-century education.

Table 1. Competencies that in-service teachers in basic, middle, and secondary education must develop to respond to current educational needs. Note: Created by the authors based on an analysis of 82 studies.

Competencies in educational technology for teachers
COMPETENCY	n	AUTHORS
Continuous professional development	49	Abduvalieva et al. (2024), Ahadi et al. (2021), Ahmad (2025), Alghamdi and Holland (2020), Al-Sinani and Al Taher (2023), Butler et al. (2017), Charania et al. (2021), Chen et al. (2024), Chernyshov (2021), Dahri et al. (2021), Dele-Ajayi et al. (2021), Diao and Yang (2021), Dogan et al. (2021), Eley et al. (2019), Fütterer et al. (2023), García-Pérez et al. (2016), Guàrdia Ortiz et al. (2022), Gümüş et al. (2023), Hu et al. (2023), Ivanishchenko et al. (2024), Li et al. (2018), Lurvink and Pitchford (2023), Murwaningsih (2025), Nelimarkka et al. (2021), Nguyen (2022), Owen et al. (2017), Owen et al. (2020), Petko et al. (2018), Pombo et al. (2017), Rajapakse et al. (2025), Rasool and Naidoo (2024), Saikkonen and Kaarakainen (2021), Sasere and Makhasane (2023), Saubern et al. (2020), Schmitz et al. (2023), Shamir-Inbal and Blau (2020), Stoilescu (2015), Strycker (2020), Sulaiman and Ismail (2020), Sun et al. (2023), Tzafilkou et al. (2023), van Leeuwen et al. (2024), Wahono et al. (2022), Wambugu (2018), Wang et al. (2014), Wiseman et al. (2017), Wu et al. (2021), Zagouras et al. (2022), Zainal and Zainuddin (2021).
Technical competency	44	Abraham et al. (2022), Agyei et al. (2023), Ahadi et al. (2021), Aivelo and Uitto (2016), Al-Mamari et al. (2020), Al-Sinani and Al Taher (2023), Aydin (2017), Chen et al. (2024), Chernyshov (2021), Chroustová et al. (2022), Dogan et al. (2021), García-Pérez et al. (2016), Gerfanova et al. (2025), Gordillo et al. (2019), Gümüş et al. (2023), Hernández-Ramos et al. (2023), Hu et al. (2023), Ivanishchenko et al. (2024), Jamil et al. (2024), Jiménez Sierra et al. (2024), Kert (2019), Kurmankulova et al. (2022), Murwaningsih (2025), Nikou et al. (2024), Oguz Unver et al. (2023), Ortiz Colón et al. (2023), Owen et al. (2017), Owen et al. (2020), Pamintuan (2021), Pamuk (2022), Pombo et al. (2017), Rajapakse et al. (2025), Rasool and Naidoo (2024), Rulyansah et al. (2023), Shamir-Inbal and Blau (2020), Silva et al. (2020), Stoilescu (2015), Strycker (2020), Uslu (2017), Wahono et al. (2022), Wambugu (2018), Wang et al. (2014), Zagouras et al. (2022), Zainal and Zainuddin (2021).
Pedagogical ICT integration	29	Abduvalieva et al. (2024), Abraham et al. (2022), Schmitz et al. (2023), Adegbenro and Olugbara (2019), Reisoğlu (2022), Ahadi et al. (2021), Alghamdi and Holland (2020), Charania et al. (2021), Wambugu (2018), Chen et al. (2024), Chernyshov (2021), Wiseman et al. (2017), Diao and Yang (2021), Guggemos and Seufert (2021), Uslu (2017), Gümüş et al. (2023), Ivanishchenko et al. (2024), Jiménez Sierra et al. (2024), Sulaiman and Ismail (2020), Tzafilkou et al. (2023), Lurvink and Pitchford (2023), Nelimarkka et al. (2021), Owen et al. (2020), Pamuk (2022), Saubern et al. (2020), Petko et al. (2018), Pombo et al. (2017), Rajapakse et al. (2025), Zagouras et al. (2022).
Digital collaboration and communication	28	Abraham et al. (2022), Ahadi et al. (2021), Ahmad (2025), Alghamdi and Holland (2020), Allela et al. (2020), Butler et al. (2017), Dahri et al. (2021), Dogan et al. (2021), Guàrdia Ortiz et al. (2022), Guggemos and Seufert (2021), Gümüş et al. (2023), Knezek et al. (2023), Nelimarkka et al. (2021), Nguyen (2022), Owen et al. (2017), Owen et al. (2020), Petko et al. (2018), Pombo et al. (2017), Rasool and Naidoo (2024), Rulyansah et al. (2023), Stoilescu (2015), Strycker (2020), Sulaiman and Ismail (2020), Uslu (2017), Wall (2024), Wambugu (2018), Wang et al. (2014), Zagouras et al. (2022).
Digital assessment and feedback	26	Abraham et al. (2022), Ahadi et al. (2021), Zainal and Zainuddin (2021)., Alghamdi and Holland (2020), Wang et al. (2014), Al-Sinani and Al Taher (2023), Chernyshov (2021), García-Pérez et al. (2016), Hernández-Ramos et al. (2023), Kurmankulova et al. (2022), Lurvink and Pitchford (2023), Nelimarkka et al. (2021), Nikou et al. (2024), Petko et al. (2018), Pombo et al. (2017), Rasool and Naidoo (2024), Saikkonen and Kaarakainen (2021), Yi et al. (2022), Shamir-Inbal and Blau (2020), Stoilescu (2015), Sulaiman and Ismail (2020), Tzafilkou et al. (2023), Zagouras et al. (2022), Uslu (2017), Wahono et al. (2022), Wambugu (2018)
Management and creation of digital learning environments	21	Abraham et al. (2022), Ahadi et al. (2021), Allela et al. (2020), Al-Sinani and Al Taher (2023), Charania et al. (2021), Chernyshov (2021), Diao and Yang (2021), Gerfanova et al. (2025), Gümüş et al. (2023), Hu et al. (2023), Kurmankulova et al. (2022), Owen et al. (2017), Petko et al. (2018), Pombo et al. (2017), Reisoğlu (2022), Sasere and Makhasane (2023), Stoilescu (2015), Strycker (2020), Tzafilkou et al. (2023), Wahono et al. (2022), Zainal and Zainuddin (2021).
Digital ethics and security	8	Abduvalieva et al. (2024), Alghamdi and Holland (2020), Diao and Yang (2021), Gordillo et al. (2019), Rasool and Naidoo (2024), Sulaiman and Ismail (2020), Uslu (2017), Wu et al. (2021).

summarizes these competencies:

• Continuous professional development was the most frequently cited competency (49 studies), emphasizing the importance of ongoing training for teachers to remain aligned with technological advancements. Butler et al. (2017) and Zainal and Zainuddin (2021) highlight initiatives such as workshops, online courses, and participation in professional learning communities, which help educators maintain adaptability and enhance their capacity to integrate new digital tools effectively.
• Technical competency was identified in 44 studies, underscoring the need for teachers to effectively use a range of digital tools and platforms in their practice. This includes proficiency with learning management systems (LMS), multimedia applications, videoconferencing tools, and advanced technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Abraham et al., 2022; Ahadi et al., 2021). Mastery of these tools enables teachers to facilitate engaging and interactive learning experiences.
• Pedagogical ICT Integration appeared in 29 studies, highlighting the ability of teachers to design and deliver instruction that meaningfully incorporates technology. This competency involves creating interactive lessons, integrating digital resources into curricula, and applying constructivist approaches to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes (Gümüş et al., 2023; Ivanishchenko et al., 2024).
• Digital collaboration and communication were identified in 28 studies, emphasizing the promotion of interaction and cooperation in virtual environments. Teachers are expected to facilitate collaborative learning activities, support student engagement through digital platforms, and encourage connections with peers and experts beyond the classroom (Owen et al., 2017; Rasool & Naidoo, 2024).
• Digital assessment and feedback was reported in 26 studies, focusing on the use of technology to monitor student progress and provide timely, personalized feedback. This competency includes implementing digital tools for formative and summative assessments, enabling data-driven instructional decisions and supporting adaptive learning approaches (Wambugu, 2018).
• Management and creation of digital learning environments appeared in 21 studies, reflecting teachers’ ability to design and manage engaging digital content. This includes developing multimedia resources, interactive presentations, and adaptive learning materials tailored to meet the diverse needs of students (Charania et al., 2021; Gümüş et al., 2023).
• Digital ethics and security was identified in eight studies, underlining the importance of promoting safe and responsible technology use in educational settings. This competency involves fostering digital citizenship, ensuring data privacy, and addressing cybersecurity concerns to create secure learning environments (Abduvalieva et al., 2024; Alghamdi & Holland, 2020).

3.2.2. Technological Skills Should Be Developed In-Service Teachers in Basic, Middle, and Secondary Education to Respond to Current Educational Needs

The systematic review identified 38 technological skills, grouped under the seven competencies previously described. These skills are essential to ensure the effective integration of educational technology into pedagogical practice. They were identified based on their recurrence and relevance in the studies analyzed.

Each skill was classified as a subcategory of a specific competency, reflecting distinct yet interrelated facets that contribute to the teacher’s technological proficiency. For instance, skills associated with “Management and Creation of Digital Learning Environments” relate to the effective use and production of digital materials, while skills like “digital literacy” serve as foundational enablers across various domains.

This classification facilitates a deeper understanding of the components that comprise each competency and enables the design of professional development programs tailored to the specific needs of individual teachers. It also provides evaluative indicators for teacher training effectiveness and emphasizes the importance of a holistic, integrated approach to developing digital teaching capacities.

Table 2. Specific skills are grouped according to each competency in educational technology for teachers. Note: Created by the authors based on the analysis of competencies and skills in educational technology for teachers.

SKILLS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHERS
Competency	Skill	n
Continuous professional development	Adaptability	20
	Commitment and continuous training	12
	Management of technological projects, innovation, and leadership	11
	Self-learning and self-efficacy	14
	Reflection and motivation	11
	Self-management and self-regulation	7
	Research and problem-solving	6
	Perceived usefulness	6
	Professional learning communities	4
Technical competency	Use of software, applications, and educational platforms	32
	Virtual classroom and LMS management	11
	Use of multimedia and videoconferencing tools	9
	Educational hardware management	7
	Use of messaging tools	5
	Artificial intelligence management	4
	Use of Augmented Reality(AR) or Virtual Reality(VR)	2
	Gamification processes	2
	Use of mobile device technologies	2
Pedagogical ICT integration	Planning and lesson design with ICT	18
	ICT integration in the curriculum and teaching	13
	Constructivist use of technology	5
	ICT management and implementation in the classroom	5
	ICT integration in the curriculum and teaching	1
Digital assessment and feedback	Digital assessment	21
	Technology evaluation and selection	11
	Self-assessment	3
Digital collaboration and communication	Virtual interaction and collaboration	22
	Interaction with experts and peers	7
	Collaborative learning	5
	Information exchange in digital environments	4
	Use of social networks	7
Management and creation of digital learning environments	Digital content management and creation	19
	Digital literacy	7
	Development of meaningful learning environments	2
	Digital portfolios	2
Digital ethics and security	ICT security	10
	Information ethics	4
	Digital citizenship	1

presents the specific skills, their associated competencies, and the frequency with which they were reported across the 82 reviewed studies.

3.3. Teacher Training Models and Methods Used in the Last Decade to Develop Competencies and Skills in Educational Technology

3.3.1. Teacher Training Models Implemented with In-Service Teachers in the Last Decade

Table 3. Models guiding teacher training in educational technology. Note: Created by the authors based on the analysis of models in educational technology training.

MODELS FOR TEACHER TRAINING IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
MODEL	Full Name	Purpose	n	Authors
TPACK	Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge	A foundational model that integrates content, pedagogy, and technology, guiding teachers in effectively applying digital tools in instruction	10	Abraham et al. (2022), Fütterer et al. (2023), Jiménez Sierra et al. (2024), Knezek et al. (2023), Ortiz Colón et al. (2023), Saubern et al. (2020), Silva et al. (2020), Stoilescu (2015), Pamuk (2022), Wall (2024).
TPASK	Technological Pedagogical Science Knowledge	An adaptation of TPACK specific to science teaching, highlighting technological integration in disciplinary contexts	1	Hernández-Ramos et al. (2023)
3S-TPACK	Support-Stimulate-Seek TPACK	A contextualized version of TPACK focused on structured support for teacher development in technological competence	1	Hu et al. (2023)
PrFPACK	Procedural Functional Pedagogical Content Knowledge	A model addressing the procedural and functional aspects of pedagogical content knowledge in technology-enhanced teaching	1	Adegbenro and Olugbara (2019)
TAM	Technology Acceptance model	Explains teacher acceptance and use of educational technology, helping to understand factors affecting integration success.	4	Cabellos et al. (2024), Chernyshov (2021), Ivanishchenko et al. (2024), Pamuk (2022).
UTAUT	Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology	A broader technology adoption model used to examine user acceptance and usage behavior among teachers.	4	Cabellos et al. (2024), Chroustová et al. (2022), Dahri et al. (2021), Ivanishchenko et al. (2024).
DigCompEdu	European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators	A European reference framework defining the digital competence areas teachers need across all education levels.	3	Nikou et al. (2024), Reisoğlu (2022), Tzafilkou et al. (2023)
SAMR	Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition	A staged model showing levels of technological integration, from substitution to redefinition of learning tasks.	2	Agyei et al. (2023), Chernyshov (2021)
SQD	Synthesis of Qualitative Evidence	A synthesis-based framework offering components that support teacher preparation in digital competence	2	Gümüş et al. (2023), Knezek et al. (2023)
CBAM	Concerns-Based Adoption Model	Explores how teachers adopt innovations, offering insights into their concerns and stages of use regarding educational technologies.	2	Dele-Ajayi et al. (2021), Pamuk (2022)
HEM	Holistic Evaluation Model	Used to evaluate the effectiveness and holistic impact of professional development programs in technology use.	1	Uslu (2017)
CHAT	Cultural-Historical Activity Theory	A socio-cultural model analyzing how learning activities, tools, and context influence teacher practice with technology.	1	Rasool and Naidoo (2024)
RSRLM	Revised Self-Regulated Learning Model	Focuses on how self-regulated learning processes can be enhanced through the use of digital tools in teacher training.	1	Shamir-Inbal and Blau (2020)
Guskey	Teacher Professional Development Evaluation	A model for evaluating teacher professional development, emphasizing the impact of training on teacher behavior and student learning.	1	Ahadi et al. (2021)
CIPP	Context, Input, Process, Product	An evaluation framework focusing on context, input, process, and product in the design of professional development initiatives.	1	Ahadi et al. (2021)
Kirkpatrick	Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Training Evaluation	An evaluation model assessing training effectiveness across four levels: reaction, learning, behavior, and results.	1	Ahadi et al. (2021)
Kozma	Kozma’s Integration of Technology in Education	Provides a conceptual basis for integrating technology into educational reform and teacher change processes.	1	Alghamdi and Holland (2020)
Iceberg	Iceberg Competency model	Emphasizes deeper, often invisible, competency aspects (e.g., attitudes and values) needed for effective ICT use in education.	1	Sulaiman and Ismail (2020)
TITA	Teachers’ Informatization Teaching Ability	Focuses on teachers’ ability to design and implement ICT-based lessons, particularly in informatization contexts.	1	Yi et al. (2022)
WSTP	Will, Skill, Tool, Pedagogy	Outlines four key components (will, skill, tool, pedagogy) that influence teachers’ ability to integrate technology meaningfully.	1	Schmitz et al. (2023)
IMBP	Integrative Model of Behavior Prediction	Explains technology-related behavior by combining intention, norms, and control beliefs—applied to predict teacher adoption of tech tools.	1	van Leeuwen et al. (2024)

presents the theoretical models and conceptual frameworks identified in the reviewed studies. The TPACK model (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) is the most frequently used (n = 10). This model provides an integrated structure that balances content, pedagogy, and technology, guiding teachers in aligning digital tools with instructional goals and student needs.

Other widely used models include the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (n = 4 each), which provide explanatory frameworks for understanding teachers’ motivation and behavioral intention to adopt technology in the classroom. These models are beneficial for designing interventions that foster meaningful adoption of educational tools.

Additional models—such as DigCompEdu (n = 3), SAMR, CBAM, and SQD (n = 2 each)—contribute diverse perspectives, ranging from the definition of digital competencies (DigCompEdu) to staged technology integration (SAMR), adoption processes (CBAM), and evidence-based synthesis (SQD).

Less frequent but conceptually relevant frameworks (n = 1 each) include adaptations of TPACK (e.g., TPASK, 3S-TPACK, PrFPACK) and evaluation-focused models like Guskey, Kirkpatrick, and CIPP, which were included for their ability to assess or support professional development in educational technology. The presence of frameworks such as CHAT, RSRLM, Kozma, and Iceberg also illustrates the conceptual diversity in the field.

These models, diverse in their origins and aims, were instrumental in the design, implementation, or evaluation of teacher training programs covered in the reviewed literature, clearly illustrating the multiplicity of approaches fostering technological integration in education.

3.3.2. Teacher Training Methods Used with In-Service Teachers in Basic, Middle, and Secondary Education to Promote Competencies in Educational Technology

As shown in

Table 4. Training methods to enhance competencies in integrating educational technology into teaching. Note: Created by the authors based on the analysis of training methods for integrating educational technology.

TRAINING METHODS FOR INTEGRATING EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Methods	Full Name	n	Authors
PLC	Professional Learning Community	15	Adegbenro and Olugbara (2019), Ahmad (2025), Dahri et al. (2021), Eley et al. (2019), Ivanishchenko et al. (2024), Kurmankulova et al. (2022), Murwaningsih (2025), Nelimarkka et al. (2021), Owen et al. (2017), Owen et al. (2020), Rasool and Naidoo (2024), Tzafilkou et al. (2023), van Leeuwen et al. (2024), Wall (2024), Zainal and Zainuddin (2021)
PBL	Problem-Based Learning	3	Abduvalieva et al. (2024), Charania et al. (2021), Hernández-Ramos et al. (2023).
SCL	Student-Centered Learning	3	Jamil et al. (2024), Lurvink and Pitchford (2023), Uslu (2017).
Delphi	Structured consultation with experts	3	Diao and Yang (2021), Guàrdia Ortiz et al. (2022), Jamil et al. (2024)
MOOC	Massive Open Online Courses	2	Butler et al. (2017), Gordillo et al. (2019), Wambugu (2018)
BL	Blended Learning	2	Shamir-Inbal and Blau (2020), Zagouras et al. (2022).
CALL	Computer assisted Languaje learning	1	Nguyen (2022)
DECODE	DEmo-CO-design/teach-feedback-D briefing	1	Wahono et al. (2022)
Edulab	Education Laboratory	1	Pombo et al. (2017)

, researchers have identified various methods designed to support the development of competencies for integrating educational technology into teaching practices. Among the most frequently reported are professional learning communities (PLCs) (n = 15), which foster collaboration, peer feedback, and reflective practice among teachers in authentic contexts (e.g., Owen et al., 2020; Zainal & Zainuddin, 2021). Similarly, Problem-Based Learning (PBL) (n = 3) emphasizes real-world problem-solving through technology use, facilitating hands-on skill development and critical thinking (Hernández-Ramos et al., 2023).

Other notable methods include student-centered learning (SCL) (n = 3), which promotes learner autonomy and active participation, and the Delphi (n = 3), used to reach expert consensus on best practices for teacher training in digital environments.

Flexible and scalable approaches like Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) (n = 2) and blended learning (BL) (n = 2) also appear in the literature as effective ways to provide access to ongoing professional development, especially when teachers have limited time for face-to-face training.

Although less frequent, methods such as Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (n = 1), DECODE (demonstrate–co-design/teach–feedback–debriefing) (n = 1), and Educational Laboratories (Edulab) (n = 1) offer innovative strategies for enhancing teacher training through specialized or experimental pedagogical environments.

4. Discussion

4.1. Competencies and Skills in Educational Technology

The post-pandemic context has accelerated digital transformation in classrooms, highlighting the urgent need for teachers to acquire new competencies to support hybrid and online learning environments (Owen et al., 2020). Earlier studies focused on mastering specific ICT tools, but recent research emphasizes the development of comprehensive competencies for navigating complex digital learning environments and emerging technologies.

The prominence of continuous professional development (CPD) reflects the increasing demands on teachers to remain responsive to rapidly evolving educational technologies. This competency enables educators to adapt their pedagogical practices and integrate innovations effectively.

Moreover, the dominance of technical competency suggests a pressing need for operational skills in utilizing educational technologies, particularly as primary and secondary schools integrate learning management systems (LMS), videoconferencing tools, and emerging technologies such as AR, VR, and AI (Nguyen, 2022; Shamir-Inbal & Blau, 2020).

Interestingly, pedagogical ICT integration, while crucial for fostering meaningful technology-enhanced learning, appeared less frequently than expected. This gap may indicate that teacher training programs still prioritize technical proficiency over pedagogical innovation, a limitation previously identified by Gümüş et al. (2023). To achieve transformative digital education, future initiatives must emphasize digital ethics as well, helping teachers ensure privacy and security in their classrooms (Abduvalieva et al., 2024).

Additionally, technology can play a transformative role in supporting students with special needs. According to Al-Mamari et al. (2020), students with disabilities often benefit from tailored ICT tools that provide inclusive and adaptive learning environments, underscoring the need for teachers to acquire skills in designing and implementing such interventions.

The identified skills reflect both foundational and advanced capacities required for effective teaching in digital contexts. Notably, the prevalence of software and platform usage underscores teachers’ need to navigate diverse digital tools efficiently. However, this emphasis on technical fluency might overshadow the development of higher-order skills, such as digital content creation and adaptive instructional design, which are critical for supporting diverse learners.

4.2. Teacher Training Models and Methods

Although models such as TPACK have effectively guided teacher training, there is an urgent need for more innovative frameworks that integrate future-oriented skills and prepare teachers to manage AI-enhanced learning environments responsibly. Variants such as TPASK (Hernández-Ramos et al., 2023), 3S-TPACK (Hu et al., 2023), and PrFPACK (Adegbenro & Olugbara, 2019) demonstrate localized efforts to operationalize the widely used TPACK model. However, the lack of explicit integration of AI into these frameworks highlights a critical gap in preparing teachers for the technological and ethical complexities of contemporary classrooms (Mustafa et al., 2024).

The role of professional learning communities (PLCs) as a method of teacher training aligns with the collaborative nature of 21st-century education. Owen et al. (2017) and Tzafilkou et al. (2023) suggest that PLCs foster collective expertise and peer support, enabling teachers to experiment with innovative practices in a safe environment. Saikkonen and Kaarakainen (2021) found that teachers’ age influences ICT usage, suggesting that training should be tailored to age groups. Creating age-specific PLCs could improve the relevance and effectiveness of professional development by aligning it with teachers’ generational experiences and learning preferences.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) aims to foster experiential and contextualized application of digital tools. In this approach, teachers solve real-world problems using digital technologies, strengthening both technical and pedagogical competencies (Hernández-Ramos et al., 2023). Complementary strategies, such as blended learning (BL) and MOOCs, also offer flexible and scalable formats, making them particularly valuable in diverse educational settings where time and access are limited.

The competencies, models, and methods identified in this review align with the UNESCO ICT Competency Framework for Teachers (UNESCO, 2018), DigCompEdu (Redecker, 2017), and the ISTE Standards (International Society for Technology in Education, 2016). They also reveal areas that require updates in the face of rapid technological shifts. A progressive and adaptive training approach remains essential.

4.3. Progression in Educational Technology Training

The findings highlight the importance of stepwise progression in training: starting with basic digital literacy, advancing through platform use, and culminating in high-level tasks such as online collaboration and digital assessment (Owen et al., 2020).

Emerging technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Augmented Reality (AR), mark an advanced stage in this progression. For example, Al-Sinani and Al Taher (2023) demonstrate the effectiveness of AR in skill-based disciplines, while Sun et al. (2023) advocate for AI training rooted in the TPACK framework. These developments reveal the urgent need for expanded research and practical integration strategies for emerging tools, including the metaverse. The curriculum must adapt to emerging technologies to ease teachers’ workload and offer the most didactic means of engaging new generations. Many teachers from earlier generations continue to teach using outdated methodologies that no longer resonate with today’s students.

4.4. Impact of Communities of Practice

While communities of practice are widely promoted as a professional development strategy, their effectiveness depends heavily on structure and facilitation. Nelimarkka et al. (2021) raise awareness that informal, loosely managed communities (e.g., via social media) often fail to produce meaningful professional growth. Thriving communities require intentional design, active moderation, and clear objectives. Considering the limited availability of time for many teachers, open communities of practice that do not demand extensive time commitments may serve as a more appealing and effective way for educators to engage in continuous development and classroom innovation.

4.5. Barriers to the Implementation of Educational Technology

Persistent barriers limit the effectiveness of training programs. Infrastructure gaps, especially in rural or under-resourced areas, remain a significant concern (Sulaiman & Ismail, 2020; Owen et al., 2020). Chernyshov (2021) emphasizes the compounded difficulty when institutional support is lacking. Furthermore, political instability and insufficient public education funding exacerbate the challenge of ensuring consistent access to educational technology and training.

Gender disparities also shape technology use. Wiseman et al. (2017) report that female teachers use digital tools more frequently across a broader range of applications. This insight supports targeted policy interventions to ensure equitable access and engagement.

Additional barriers include resistance to change and lack of sustained policy support (Owen et al., 2017). Teachers’ attitudes toward new digital tools and their reluctance to change significantly hinder the adoption of educational technologies, reducing the impact of training programs. Despite the large availability of multiple training opportunities, they often fail to resonate with teachers’ immediate needs or the realities of their teaching. As a result, these programs are often abandoned or poorly implemented, resulting in a lack of tangible impact on daily classroom practice. These findings call for long-term planning and systemic investment.

4.6. Importance of Mentorship and Institutional Support

Mentorship and institutional coordination are crucial for the sustained integration of technology. Owen et al. (2017) highlight the roles of educational technology coordinators in supporting teachers who may feel overwhelmed by the pace of digital change. Ideally, mentors should be teachers or coordinators familiar with the school’s specific context and their colleagues’ characteristics, fostering trust and relevance in professional development. Such mentorship should provide ongoing training, particularly given the rapid evolution of educational technologies over the past decade. Teachers must adapt to these changes or risk relying on outdated methods that may no longer resonate with newer generations of students. Effective mentorship provides continuous guidance, ensuring that digital competencies are effectively translated into practical classroom implementation.

5. Conclusions

This review’s findings highlight the importance of continuous, personalized, and contextually adapted teacher training in educational technology. Key competencies—continuous professional development, technical proficiency, digital assessment and feedback, digital collaboration and communication, pedagogical ICT integration, management and creation of digital learning environments, and digital ethics and security—are essential to helping teachers integrate educational technology into their pedagogical practices. These competencies are crucial for fostering collaboration in virtual environments and leading innovative teaching processes. They align with existing international competency frameworks, reaffirming the global emphasis on developing digital competencies in education.

Models like TPACK and its derivatives (TPASK, 3S-TPACK, PrFPACK) have proven instrumental in guiding the development of these competencies. Likewise, professional learning communities (PLCs) and Problem-Based Learning (PBL) have effectively facilitated contextually relevant and practical training processes. These methods enable progressive skill acquisition—from basic to advanced levels—thereby ensuring a more sustainable and impactful adoption of technology in the classroom.

This review reinforces the theoretical position that integrating educational technology is not merely an extension of traditional teaching but a foundational transformation. Hence, teacher training models and methods must remain adaptable and scalable to meet the demands of a fast-evolving digital landscape.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) represents a significant frontier in emerging technologies. Yet, few teacher training programs explicitly incorporate AI education, and most related studies are still in the early stages of development. Further research is urgently needed to explore how AI can be effectively integrated into teacher training frameworks, such as TPACK, particularly in ways that balance pedagogical benefits with ethical considerations.

Finally, this review reveals the pressing need for coherent, well-funded educational policies. Such policies must address not only pedagogical training but also the structural barriers that limit implementation, including insufficient infrastructure, political instability, and the continuous lack of investment in public education systems. Only through a systemic and equity-driven approach can all teachers be adequately equipped to navigate and lead in the current phase of 21st-century digital education as we move towards the second quarter of the century.

5.1. Strengths and Limitations

This review contains a timely synthesis of literature from 2014 to 2025, offering updated and globally relevant insights. The inclusion of studies from multiple regions allows for the identification of common patterns and shared challenges. However, significant limitations exist. Infrastructure, funding, and policy realities vary widely across countries—particularly high-income regions such as Europe, Asia, or North America, and low-income areas in Africa or South America—limiting the generalization of some conclusions.

Moreover, this study focuses exclusively on in-service teachers in basic, middle, and secondary education. Higher education contexts, where educational technology operates under different paradigms, were excluded and should be deemed separate investigations.

5.2. Recommendations

Future research should more explicitly account for regional and cultural differences in teacher training, recognizing that policies and strategies are conditional on the social context and may not directly apply to different rule sets. Comparative studies are necessary to assess the effectiveness of training methods across diverse educational systems, particularly those spanning various continents.

Additionally, there is a clear need to expand research efforts and program development focused on AI in teacher training. Given the growing presence of AI tools in education, understanding how teachers can utilize them ethically and effectively should be a research priority.

Finally, future investigations should continue to address barriers such as resistance to change, lack of institutional support, and educators’ attitudes toward technology. Such obstacles must be addressed through policy reform, and localized training strategies will become strategic for equipping teachers with the full range of digital and pedagogical skills needed to lead meaningful innovation in today’s classrooms.