Augmented Reality Technology in Aiding Preschoolers’ Education: A Preliminary Study

Abstract

Education has been steadily incorporating technology to support and enhance teaching and learning practices. One illustrative example is the use of augmented reality (AR), which seamlessly merges virtual elements with the physical world. Children are acquainted with emerging technology as they are the new generation who have been exposed to smart phones and tablets. They belong to a new generation profoundly influenced by these devices. In this research, an AR-based edutainment mobile application with digital visual elements and sound, namely ARKiD, is developed as an alternative to traditional educational mechanisms. It aims to enhance the learning experience for preschool children. This research investigates teachers’ and preschoolers’ perceptions and behavioral patterns in using ARKiD. A mixed method approach was used to collect data from 12 teachers and 65 preschoolers aged 4–5. During data collection, both qualitative and quantitative methods are used. Qualitative methods include observation based on psychomotor aspects, for example, controlling, turning, inspecting, and interview while quantitative refers to the use of questionnaires. The questionnaire was designed based on the technology acceptance model (TAM) which consisted of four antecedents, namely perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEOU), attitude (A) and behavioral intention (BI). This research revealed that the teachers and preschoolers enjoyed using ARKiD despite some concerns regarding AR technology. Overall, preschoolers can operate the ARKiD independently and it shows the learning effectiveness. This research has presented a new type of educational technology to bridge the gap in the field.

1. Introduction

The proliferation of technological advancements has had a profound influence on contemporary society, ushering in a revolution in education. With the rapid advancement of technology in recent decades, both teachers and students have access to novel ways of working, studying, and acquiring information that was once inconceivable. Augmented reality (AR) has emerged as a powerful tool for engaging students in learning. The creation of educational content that leads to a better understanding of topics is possible in a boundless virtual world. AR promotes learning by allowing active participation during lessons, personalizing instruction, and improving learners’ creativity (Yousef, 2021). Despite the fact that many schools in Malaysia still adhere to traditional teaching methods that rely on textbooks, there is a growing trend in some Malaysian schools to incorporate AR into their learning curriculum (Ahmad & Junaini, 2022; Abd Halim et al., 2022).

Today, children are increasingly drawn to digital media over traditional books because of their convenience and portability (Cascales et al., 2013). One of the main reasons for this was that parents introduced their children to mobile devices at a young age, providing them with an entry point into the world of technology and new approaches to education. While introducing children to technology can have its merits, there is a potential downside. Children may end up using digital devices for social media, video games, and entertainment rather than educational purposes. Excessive screen time can hinder learning and negatively affect mental health (Weaver et al., 2022). Therefore, it is essential to teach children how to use technology in a responsible and constructive manner for educational purposes. Furthermore, certain children, such as those with dyslexia, may face challenges in keeping up with traditional learning methods, particularly in rural or underdeveloped areas (Rahmat et al., 2018). Dyslexic children commonly struggle with issues such as reversed writing, in which they have difficulty distinguishing certain letters or numbers, often reading them in a mirrored fashion. For instance, they may confuse “b” with “d” or “9” with “p.” These mirrored letters and numbers can lead to pronunciation errors in reading and writing.

AR is an effective learning tool to introduce interactive study and learning experiences for preschool children (Rega & Mennitto, 2017). Preschool children thrive when they are equipped with a learning environment that emphasizes play, exploration, and hands-on experiences (Ellen et al., 2018). AR can be seen as an alternative to replace traditional white-board teaching because it is able to capture children’s attention, allows visual stimulation presentation, and provides multimodal learning that combines visual, auditory, and tactile elements (Duarte et al., 2020).

Motivated by how remarkably AR benefits children, the aim of this research is to propose and develop a mobile application that introduces letters in a new way. This application uses both tangible and intangible facets. A deck of flash cards was designed, and when the camera was focused, an image overlay was produced, which generated digital visual elements and audio. A video was created for each letter, enabling the children to learn at their own pace, following guidance. There is little research on the impact of AR on preschool children in Malaysia. This research aims to reveal the findings of both children and teachers regarding their perceptions of adopting AR in the curriculum, in terms of cognitive development or user engagement.

The proposed AR application can be integrated seamlessly into Malaysian schools’ existing curricula. In addition, maximizing the scalability by providing content that aligns with learning objectives, such as 3D visualizations for STEM topics and historical reconstructions for social studies. The proposed application is designed to work on widely available devices, for instance, smartphones and tablets, ensuring accessibility.

2. Related Works

2.1. Augmented Reality (AR) in Education

There is a diversity of teaching and learning utilizing AR technology-related work, which will be reviewed in this section. At the University level, AR is used to improve architectural education, which provides an engaging learning atmosphere. Success was evaluated based on students’ progress and was revealed as being useful and having a positive impact on landscape design education (Hussein, 2022). On the other hand (Mozaffari & Hamidi, 2022) investigated the integration of AR and gamification in teaching and learning Persian. The findings indicated that students had increased satisfaction, enthusiasm, and interaction with the environment and people. Consequently, the process of learning and memorizing concepts becomes more efficient. Liu et al. (2022) developed an AR application for physical education. They aimed to apply increased physical education realities for spatial orientation creation and acquisition, in contrast to conventional exhibition education. In the field of engineering, AR is used to understand finite-state machines (Nadeem et al., 2022) to enhance the traditional mode of lecture-based instruction and information delivery. AR is also used to teach science (O. Yilmaz, 2021), bioscience (Reeves et al., 2021), and mathematics (Conley et al., 2020). Although AR is full of possibilities, the integration of pedagogy, content, and technology should be considered before implementation (Feriyadi, 2018).

Although AR is widely used in tertiary education, it is also an innovative teaching and learning mechanism in elementary education. For example, Kleftodimos et al. (2023) presented a location-based AR application to learn cultural heritage knowledge, while Abd Halim et al. (2022) designed game-based AR to learn geography concepts. The incorporation of gamification consists of goals, interaction, and feedback, which increases student engagement (Misak & LaGrandeur, 2020). Using web-based AR to provide fun elements, such as prompting the user for the name of the animal that is shown on the scene as a 3D object model (Wang et al., 2022) has proven to be perplexing. The problems encountered include projection errors, texture rendering, and static models. By developing an AR game that projects a virtual object onto a play mat, the participants, middle and preschool students were divided into two groups. Every time a game is played, a question is posed, and they must choose the appropriate response. While receiving overwhelmingly positive feedback from preschoolers, middle school students’ opinions are less favorable (Dymora & Niemiec, 2019).

AR is also utilized in preschool education because it is interactive and engaging. To teach preschooler’s language and math, cartoon picture cards, 3D models, and cartoon videos were designed (Yao et al., 2025). The findings indicated there was positive feedback from both the preschoolers and teachers. Some researchers (Foo et al., 2023) developed AR to explore chili plant growth processes to enhance preschooler’s understanding. It is challenging to develop age-appropriate content and overcome technical difficulties, including the production of affordable applications. Learning fundamental skills, such as thinking, movement, and understanding, is important in order to foster a strong foundation. An AR application has been developed, Kiriosity, which features primary colors, high-contrast graphics, and swiping and tapping mechanisms that have successfully taught preschoolers’ letters and accurate pronunciation (Choo et al., 2023). Similarly, Dawson et al. (2018) used speech recognition to enhance children’s pronunciation. There is a concern that multilingual learners may lose motivation when using languages other than their mother tongue (Supruniuk et al., 2020). However, it has been proven that technology such as AR enhances users’ language learning. A variety of tools can be integrated with AR, such as toys (Shehu et al., 2015) and physical story books (Soon et al., 2022). When developing an application for children, it is important to pay close attention to children’s cognitive attentiveness (Bjekić et al., 2020) to guarantee their continued use of the application.

In summary, the impact of using AR in teaching and learning materials has been proven to be useful and effective (Chen et al., 2016; Tan Yeen-Ju et al., 2020) in increasing students’ learning focus and concentration (Geetha et al., 2020), learning outcomes, and motivation to study regardless of age (Singh et al., 2015). The positive results aligned with AR effectiveness and student satisfaction, which influence educational performance. AR also increases the effectiveness of distance or online teaching and learning, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, as it is possible to share knowledge through AR with the use of virtual objects and instructional display materials (Tosto et al., 2020).

2.2. Augmented Reality (AR) and User Perception

The educational benefits of AR are strongly tied to how the technology is developed, put into practice, and integrated into both official and informal learning environments (Wu et al., 2013). Various analyses have been conducted to determine user perception of AR technology. Feedback from parents, teachers, and students is useful to better understand how AR is beneficial compared to traditional teaching and learning mechanisms. (Cascales et al., 2013) divided the experiment into two groups: an experimental group that received the intervention (augmented reality content) and a control group that did not. Each group consisted of 18 participants aged between 4 and 5 years, facilitated by the same teacher and subject matter. The analysis of an evaluative questionnaire revealed a positive outcome that AR helped their children become more motivated, knowledgeable, proficient in reading and writing, creative, and satisfied. Parents of the experimental group were happier with their children’s accomplishments than those of the control group. A similar study investigating parental influence was conducted in other research (Shahril Nizam & Muhammad Aiman, 2016). The parents perceived that AR is favorable in preschool education as it enhances children’s ability to learn alphabets, and they agreed that it should be used both at schools and at home.

The teachers’ role in encouraging AR adoption in schools is critical (Yao et al., 2025; K. Cheng et al., 2022). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six secondary school teachers to gauge their acceptance of math learning (Banerjee & Walunj, 2019). A three-phase research design was deployed: first, the teachers were probed on their teaching experience and the challenges faced; then, they were introduced to the AR application where the interviewer demonstrated how the application functions; and finally, teachers had the opportunity to interact and explore the application for an average of 15–20 min. They perceived that the AR application was easy to use and were willing to adopt it in their teaching. Generally, the results and findings on user perceptions are promising. For example, teachers consider AR as an element that will cause a change in the student’s learning methodology, making it more autonomous and experiential (Marín-Díaz et al., 2022), and there is a need to supplement current teaching with additional resources (Banerjee & Walunj, 2019). In contrast, some concerns have been raised, such as the direct relationship between low AR exposure and the use of AR (Sumadio & Rambli, 2010), teachers needing more training with AR, lower costs, and greater availability of resources to carry out the teaching process with greater ease (Marín-Díaz et al., 2022), and educational policy makers needing to apply additional measures to ensure the availability of equipment and trained staff (Alalwan et al., 2020).

Similarly, AR can be seen as a suitable complement to the learning experience, which creates a motivating learning environment. However, (Mamani-Calapuja et al., 2023) found that students were characterized by obedience, where they focused on memorization and repetition instead of actively engaging with AR elements. This interaction is further inhibited by the limited integration of 3D elements. In addition, teachers should be adequately prepared to fully utilize the AR tool; AR content should be of high quality with diverse elements; children’s capacity should not be overloaded by overwhelming visual or auditory stimuli; these are some aspects that must be considered when implementing AR in education (Mamani-Calapuja et al., 2023).

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Design

This study adopted a mixed-method design approach to address our research question of how a mobile application can introduce letters in a new way to enhance preschoolers’ learning. Qualitative methods such as observation to note independent behavior and intellectual prowess and interviews to determine cognitive attainment and opinions were conducted among preschoolers. A quantitative method was used to gather results from teachers about their perceptions of using the proposed AR application, namely ARKid.

The target participants of this research were preschoolers aged between 4 and 5 (n = 65) and preschool teachers (n = 12) from six preschools in Malaysia. Convenience sampling was used because the participants were selected based on accessibility and willingness. Due to resource and logistical constraints, only two kindergartens were visited, resulting in a higher number of students compared to teachers. Research ethics approval and verbal consent from parents and teachers were obtained prior to the data collection procedure.

The process flow of the research design is illustrated in Figure 1. In the first phase, the preschooler was handed a smartphone and a set of flash cards. The preschooler explores the application by scanning any one of the flash cards. Subsequently, a video is presented. To ensure there was no disruption to the teachers, an hour was allocated each day for data collection for each preschool. The one-to-one session with the preschoolers took 5 min to test ARKid and another 5 min for an interview, which accounted for a maximum of 10 min. The children were free to pick up any playing cards during the experiment. Phase two involved a qualitative method approach in which the observation was conducted to collect implicit and explicit behaviors during exploration. This was followed by the third phase, in which the interview was performed. The preschooler was probed for any comments related to the use of ARKid. When the entire process was completed, the survey questionnaires were circulated to the teachers.

3.2. ARKid Development

The technical requirements for this research were Unity3D Version 3 and Vuforia Engine 11.3. The former is deployed to create an application and render 3D objects, whereas the latter holds the application features.

Graphical user interface design implications are heavily considered in this research. For example, buttons that are filled with texts are not suitable and overuse of visuals would increase the risk of confusion. Hence, the resulting application is simple yet informative. Figure 2 shows a sample of a button incorporated with icon metaphor which is easier to recognize.

The placement of the video is an important consideration. Because the flash cards will be placed on a flat surface such as a table or floor, they should be shown in a vertical position instead of overlapping the card with the video. This makes it easier for a preschooler to position the smartphone camera, rather than having their head looking down on the card. It allows the preschooler to point their camera in a horizontal position for ease of use, as illustrated in Figure 3.

A set of flash cards was designed to learn the letters. Two sets of flash cards were provided to each participant, and each deck consisted of 24 pieces. The size of the flash cards was set at 62 mm × 89 mm. It is necessary to increase the portability of the cards because preschoolers have smaller hands. This could be frustrating when flipping or holding flash cards. The cards act as markers to project 3D visualizations and can be used as educational tools or for entertainment purposes such as memory or matching games. A sample flash card is shown in Figure 4.

OpenDyslexic was chosen as the font type for the flash cards. It has a thicker line in parts of the letter and is slightly slanted. This is beneficial for children who may suffer from dyslexia. The stock images used for the flash cards were cute and cartoony to attract the children’s attention. Instead of having serious stock images, a more colorful, vibrant art style could prompt a strong imagination in children and trigger their curiosity. The background of the flash card was set to white to match the overall color images. This is to increase the concentration level to direct their vision toward the image and words.

ARKid consists of two scenes: an AR camera and splash screen (Figure 5). The purpose of the splash screen is to conserve battery power because camera usage consumes high loading. Thus, if the preschooler decides to pause while searching for a specific flash card, he/she can return to the splash screen. Figure 6 shows the letters A and B flash cards and their 3D visualizations when the camera is activated.

For both scenes, only one button is embedded. The idea is to ensure that the button position is obvious and that preschoolers can locate it easily. Another consideration is the exit button, which is positioned at the bottom right instead of at the top right. The top-right position blocks the user from watching the video, which creates a disruption in concentration.

The video contained letter pronunciation, phonics, word pronunciation, and handwriting. Teaching writing in systematic instruction can effectively help all preschoolers, including those with dyslexia, to learn and read effectively. Additionally, a short video was added to each card. The characters in the video would read the corresponding alphabet letters and their words on the card. It functions as an alternative to traditional teaching methods. If children have reading difficulties, they can switch to audio teaching and learning methods.

3.3. Mixed Method Design

The quantitative design method used in this research was a survey to gauge teachers’ perception of the ARKid. The questionnaire was designed based on the technology acceptance model (TAM), which consists of four antecedents: perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEOU), attitude (A), and behavioral intention (BI), resulting in a total of 12 statements (

Table 1. Questionnaire constructs.

Teacher’s Opinion (R. M. Yilmaz, 2016; Teo, 2009)	PU	Preschooler controls the operation of ARKid.
		Using ARKiD will enhance my effectiveness.
		Using ARKiD will increase my productivity.
		Using ARKiD will make my teaching easier.
		I would find ARKiD useful in my teaching.
	PEOU	My interaction with ARKiD is clear and understandable.
		I find it easy to get ARKiD to do what I want to do.
	A	ARKiD makes my teaching more interesting.
		Teaching with ARKiD is fun.
	BI	I intend to use ARKiD in the future
		I intend to use ARKiD instead of the traditional teaching method.
		I plan to use ARKiD often.

). A 5-point Likert scale was used, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

The technology acceptance model (TAM), developed by Davis (1989), is a widely used framework for understanding users’ acceptance of technology (K.-H. Cheng & Tsai, 2014). PU refers to the degree to which a person believes that using a system will enhance performance; PEOU is the degree to which one believes that using the system will be free of effort; A infers users’ positive or negative feelings about using the technology; and BI indicates the likelihood of actual system usage. TAM was chosen for this research due to its simplicity, robustness, and strong empirical support across diverse educational settings, including early childhood contexts where technology adoption is still emerging (R. M. Yilmaz, 2016). In preschool education, where teachers play a central role in facilitating and approving technology use, TAM provides a structured framework to evaluate their acceptance and attitudes. Its constructs align well with the objectives of this research.

Observations (

Table 2. Observation template.

Behaviors of operating ARKiD (K.-H. Cheng & Tsai, 2014; R. M. Yilmaz, 2016)	Controlling	Preschooler controls the operation of ARKid.
	Turning	Preschooler rotates the phone around to view the AR element.
	Inspecting	Preschooler tries to touch the AR element.
Interaction-oriented behaviors regarding the AR elements (K.-H. Cheng & Tsai, 2014; R. M. Yilmaz, 2016)	Pointing	Preschooler points at the details of the AR element.
	Commenting	Preschooler makes comments on the AR element.
	Questioning	Preschooler asks questions about the AR element.
	Repeating	Preschooler repeats the application to view the AR element.

) and interviews (

Table 3. Interview template.

Children’s Opinion (R. M. Yilmaz, 2016)	Do you enjoy using ARKiD?
	Why do you enjoy using ARKiD?
	Which card did you pick for learning? Can you give any comment about the playing card you picked?
Cognitive Attainment (R. M. Yilmaz, 2016)	Do you like the video presented in the AR element? Can you describe the video?
	Do you have any thoughts about the content of the video and the playing card? Anything to share with us?

) were conducted with preschoolers based on the template adapted from (K.-H. Cheng & Tsai, 2014; R. M. Yilmaz, 2016). The research assistants had conducted interviews and observations during the data collection process. The tasks were successfully carried out under close supervision, the use of structured observation protocols, and guidance from prior research. The goal was to record children’s experiences while using the ARKiD and their interaction behaviors. Another template was designed to record the interview answers from the preschoolers, which focused on children’s opinions and their cognitive attainment. The feedback was recorded on paper instead of voice recorders to maintain children’s privacy.

4. Results

4.1. Quantitative Results

Altogether, 12 preschool teachers participated in this survey. Eleven of them were female and the other was male. They were of different ethnicities, such as Chinese (58%), Malay (25%), and Indian (17%).

Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha was conducted. The results revealed that the constructs measured in the study demonstrated varying levels of internal consistency. Perceived usefulness (PU) exhibited excellent reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.95 while perceived ease of use (PEOU) showed acceptable reliability with an alpha value of 0.74. Attitude (A) also demonstrated strong reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.93. Behavioral intention (BI) yielded a lower alpha value of 0.67, which, although slightly below the commonly accepted threshold of 0.70, may still be considered acceptable in exploratory research contexts.

Descriptive statistics for each of the TAM items are stated in

Table 4. Descriptive statistics.

Survey Factors	Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (SD)
PU1	3.58	0.7930
PU2	3.75	0.7538
PU3	3.50	0.7977
PU4	3.67	0.7785
PU5	3.58	0.9003
PEOU1	4.00	0.8528
PEOU2	3.92	0.9003
A1	4.33	0.8876
A2	4.33	0.7785
BI1	4.00	1.0445
BI2	3.00	1.0445
BI3	3.42	1.0836

. Perceived usefulness (PU) obtains a mean (M) value of 3.62 and a standard deviation (SD) of 0.805. This result does not reflect a significant positive perception of the usefulness of the ARKiD. This could be due to the teachers’ low exposure to AR technology. While the majority have no opinion on whether ARKiD is useful in their work, the responses were favorable to using ARKiD in making their teaching easier. The teachers also agreed that ARKiD would be a good supplementary activity for children.

In terms of perceived ease of use (PEOU), a slightly higher µ with a value of 3.96 and a σ of 0.877. The application is designed to be simple while fitting the pedagogic design, and no practice is required while using the application. This proves that most teachers are comfortable with the ease of use of the ARKiD. It is worth noting that the only comment received concerning the design was the lack of a tutorial on scanning the object.

Attitude (A) obtained the highest M value of 4.33 and SD of 0.8331. Teachers are generally motivated to adopt ARKiD, as teaching delivery is a totally different approach compared to textbooks and whiteboards. Moreover, teachers have more opportunities to interact more closely with their children.

The behavior intention (BI) to use ARKiD results in M = 3.47, SD = 1.058. The results show that some teachers perceive that ARKiD is not workable in the long run, as the lifespan of the application is quite short and constant updates to the application are needed to retain the attention of the children, as there are multiple ways to gain the attention of children (Ismail & Jaafar, 2011).

Additionally, the Pearson correlation analysis revealed several strong relationships among the constructs. For example, PU2 and PU4 were highly correlated (r = 0.93), suggesting strong alignment in how respondents perceived usefulness. Similarly, PEOU1 showed a very strong positive correlation with BI1 (r = 0.92), and PEOU2 with BI3 (r = 0.78), reflecting the importance of ease of use in influencing behavioral intentions. Attitude items A1 and A2 also exhibited strong correlation (r = 0.88), supporting their consistency.

4.2. Qualitative Results

A total of 65 children participated in the study. Observations and interviews were conducted for qualitative data collection. While observing the children’s behavior of operating the ARKiD, the considerations were psychomotor aspects such as controlling, turning, and inspecting as depicted in

Table 5. Frequency of controlling and turning behavior.

	Full Guidance	Some Guidance	No Guidance
Controlling	13	26	26
Percentage	20%	40%	40%
	Independent	Struggling
Rotating/turning	51	14
Percentage	78%	22%

. Regarding children’s interaction-oriented behaviors, the specific actions taken into account were pointing, commenting, questioning, and repeating, as shown in

Table 6. Frequency of psychomotor assessment.

	Count	Percentage
Inspecting	33	50.77
Pointing	15	23.08
Commenting	21	32.31
Questioning	19	29.23
Repeating	61	93.85

.

Observations were recorded for every participant on a form. In controlling the smartphone, it was found that some participants were able to operate independently, while others were not. Twenty% of the participants required the help of a teacher/adult to facilitate them through the experiment with a hands-on guide; 40% of the participants required minimal explanations on how to use ARKiD while another 40% were able to control and operate the application without any guidance. The teacher’s role was primarily supervisory to ensure the safety and smooth execution of the activity, without directly influencing the children’s responses or interactions. The teacher’s presence did not have a significant impact on the data collected or introduce any observable bias.

The children’s rotating behavior of the smartphone to adjust the view of the AR element incited significant enthusiasm. The majority (78%) were able to turn their phone freely to explore the AR element on their own. They were able to view larger 3D visualizations, and when they moved the flash cards, they had a better view of the object dimension. However, 22% were troubled by adjusting their orientation. When this occurs, guidance is required.

Inspecting refers to when the participant inspects the AR elements and attempts to touch them. Approximately 51% of the participants were interested in the AR elements. Their actions include tapping on screens and touching 3D elements.

In terms of interaction-oriented behaviors regarding the AR elements, this achieved a total of 23%, which is relatively low. This could due to the reason that the ARKiD is providing information, and does not expect much interaction. The interaction was observed when participants followed the pronunciation from the video to read out loud along with the video. Some 32% of the participants provided comments on the application; for instance, they read along with the video and shared their thoughts with their teachers. A further 29% of the children asked questions about the AR element, while most of the questions that children asked were about the topic of augmented reality, such as how it works, how did it happen, and some other general questions. Only a minority of students ask for pronunciation help from teachers or question the procedure of how the application works, such as scanning the AR object and aligning the cameras.

A high number of children repeat using the ARKiD after they finished a video lesson, which involved about 93% of the children picking more than one card while testing the application. Some children had no issue controlling the application on their own during the second attempt using the application.

Interviews were conducted after each experiment. Of the participants, 53% agreed that they enjoyed the application, mainly because of the 3D elements (36%), video content (54%), and flash card design (10%). When asked whether there was any specific flash card that the participant would pick, all of them indicated that they would pick randomly. Regarding the video element, the participants were asked to describe how they felt. It was found that 36 of them showed full concentration in watching the video; the focus was diverse, such as the avatar (28%), pronunciation (17%), end of demonstration (6%), beginning of the video (8%), first play of the character (11%), and handwriting (3%). Four participants indicated that they were unable to focus. The participants also gave feedback; for example, they preferred a variety of avatars from which they could choose and to provide a gamification video instead of purely educational ones.

5. Findings and Discussion

With regard to teachers’ perceptions, we found that they exhibited a positive perception of using ARKiD in their teaching routine. This finding is encouraging and is in line with previous studies (Alalwan et al., 2020; Yun, 2018; Tzima et al., 2019; Lham et al., 2020; Perifanou et al., 2022). This indicates the effectiveness of the educational technologies that facilitate teaching. As a result, they would feel enthusiastic about using ARKiD regularly, thus increasing the adoption rate. When teachers use ARKiD in their curriculum, they need to be innovative to create lesson plans in line with ARKiD to engage preschoolers’ attention. Hence, creative lessons that captivate preschoolers’ interest and make learning more enjoyable would enhance preschoolers’ learning experiences. Additionally, positive attitudes among teachers can influence their peers. When a teacher experiences success with the ARKiD, others may be more inclined to try it, creating a positive ripple effect in the school or district.

While the positive reception from teachers highlights the potential of AR in education, it is also crucial to address potential barriers to ensure long-term success. Concerns raised by teachers, such as training challenges (Marín-Díaz et al., 2022; Romanova, 2020) indicate that teachers might feel apprehensive about using new technology that can create a learning curve. As a result, this affects their confidence in teaching and the underutilization of technology. Negative attitudes and a reluctance to use ARKiD lead to less engagement in lessons and result in reduced student interest and participation. Hence, teachers should embrace technology by investing time and effort into training and professional development.

While teachers must adopt technology by investing time and effort, when implemented purposefully, the technology can enhance and complement classroom methodologies. Rather than replacing traditional approaches, technology like ARKiD supports differentiated instruction, enriches content delivery, and fosters interactive, student-centered learning. While conventional methods remain valuable, integrating ICT can offer greater efficiency, engagement, and accessibility, especially for diverse learners. As teachers’ attitudes play a crucial role in determining ARKiD use and effectiveness in the classroom, promoting positive attitudes and providing adequate support and training for teachers is essential for the successful incorporation of ARKiD in education. Specifically, the need for regular updates to keep the content engaging and aligned with evolving curricula is crucial to maintain the quality of learning content.

Based on the qualitative results, not all preschoolers had the same level of proficiency with technology. If preschoolers could operate ARKiD independently, this indicates that ARKiD can be a tool for self-directed learning and exploration. It has the potential to empower preschoolers to engage with educational content without constant supervision, fostering self-directed learning, and is generally user-friendly and flexible to accommodate diverse learning needs. Self-directed learning and exploration play a vital role in fostering preschoolers’ curiosity and creativity. On the other hand, it highlights the importance of well-designed interfaces targeting preschoolers, which should be clear and intuitive (Masmuzidin et al., 2022; Laera et al., 2022). Another crucial finding is the role of teachers in facilitating preschoolers who are not proficient in using the ARKiD. Hence, teacher training and support are essential, and it demonstrates a proportionate relationship with preschoolers in using the ARKiD in learning. Due to various technology proficiency levels, teachers may need to tailor their guidance based on individual needs, ensuring that all preschoolers have the opportunity to benefit from ARKiD.

Despite these concerns, ARKiD was chosen as the preferable mode of learning for preschoolers. AR enables an interactive and hands-on learning experience. Preschoolers can interact directly with virtual objects and animations, which are more engaging than traditional learning methods. AR offers rich visual and sensory experiences, such as colorful and dynamic 3D visualizations, to attract preschoolers’ attention, which in turn stimulates their imagination and creativity. Naturally, preschoolers are curious learners (Liquin & Lombrozo, 2020; Özbay Karlıdağ, 2021) and ARKiD transports them to different worlds in ways that traditional methods cannot. The combination of technology and engaging content makes the ARKiD a compelling tool for early childhood education.

In summary, the findings underscore the importance of continuous improvements in ARKiD applications. Efforts should be made to make AR technology as accessible and user-friendly as possible, to cater to a broader range of users. This includes further simplifying orientation adjustments or providing clearer instructions, emphasizing the importance of user-friendly design, and the potential for independent exploration using ARKiD. They also stress the need for guidance and support for those who encounter difficulties. These implications can guide the development and implementation of the ARKiD in educational contexts, ensuring a more inclusive and effective learning experience.

6. Conclusions

The purpose of this research is to determine teachers’ and preschoolers’ perspectives in using ARKiD and preschoolers’ behavioral patterns. The ARKiD is an augmented reality-based edutainment mobile application that aims to enhance preschoolers’ learning. The results revealed positive perceptions by both teachers and preschoolers. Teachers exhibited the highest level of positive attitude towards adopting ARKiD in their curriculum while raising specific technological concerns, while preschoolers enjoyed using ARKiD and they operated the application at different proficiency levels, as some required teacher intervention. A well-designed, technology-free classroom undoubtedly plays a crucial role in early childhood education. However, ARKiD is designed to complement traditional learning by offering unique affordances that are difficult to achieve without technology. ARKiD aims to enhance learning experiences in ways that traditional methods alone may not fully provide.

Despite the promising potential of AR technology in enhancing preschool education, it is important to acknowledge its limitations to provide a balanced perspective. One major limitation is device compatibility, as AR applications often require modern smartphones or tablets with adequate processing power and sensors, which may not be available in all educational settings. Cost is another significant barrier, particularly for schools with limited budgets, as the procurement of compatible devices and supplementary resources may strain financial resources. Furthermore, accessibility in rural areas poses a challenge, as these regions may lack the necessary infrastructure, such as reliable internet connectivity or technical support, to implement AR tools effectively. Additionally, AR technology may not fully cater to children with special needs, requiring further customization to ensure inclusivity. Addressing these limitations is essential for scaling AR solutions and ensuring equitable access to its benefits across diverse educational contexts. In addition, while the findings of this research provide preliminary insights, the relatively small number of participants may limit the generalizability of the results.

A few aspects could be considered for ARKiD enhancement in the future. First, gamification elements are incorporated to make learning feel like playing (Erman et al., 2018; Ravichandran et al., 2024). Preschoolers are more likely to stay engaged and enjoy learning when they enjoy fun activities. In addressing the usability of gamification, assessing its impact on engagement and motivation by tracking user interactions, completion rates, and time spent on tasks are required. Feedback from students and teachers could also be gathered through surveys and focus groups to understand how game-like elements influence learning outcomes. Second, AR can be customized to a child’s level of understanding and pace of learning (Aslam et al., 2024; Hao et al., 2024). It adapts to their needs and offers a personalized learning experience that can boost their confidence and motivation. Subsequently, personalization can be integrated with achievements to provide immediate feedback and rewards that encourage continued engagement. In addition to 3D visualizations and sounds alone, tactile elements can enhance memory retention and bring the entire experience to a new level. Assessment of personalization features can be performed through pre-test and post-test experiments to compare and measure improvements in learning outcomes between students using personalized AR experiences and those using a standard version. Future research should consider involving a larger and more diverse sample to strengthen the statistical power and enhance the validity of the conclusions.