The Education of Roma Students: Integrated Education and Teacher Preparedness in Hungarian-Language Schools

Abstract

This study examines the integration of disadvantaged Roma ethnic minority students in Hungarian-language vocational schools in Central European countries with highly segregated education systems. It focuses on Romania, Slovakia, and Hungary, where Roma students face significant segregation. This research investigates two Romanian, two Slovak, and four Hungarian vocational schools, selected based on their proportion of Roma students aligning with national averages. Surveys and interviews were conducted with teachers to assess their attitudes, commitment, and preparedness in educating Roma students. The main findings of this research are that schools with Roma student proportions matching national averages do not face significant challenges in co-education, teachers generally believe Roma students should complete lower secondary education, and teachers are committed to supporting Roma students but often feel unprepared to teach them. This study’s results suggest that governments should implement policies to eliminate educational segregation in vocational schools and promote inclusive education. Teacher training programs should focus on equipping educators with better tools to support Roma students. Possible directions for further research include a comparative analysis of vocational and grammar secondary schools in the integration of Roma students, longitudinal studies on the long-term educational and career outcomes of Roma students in vocational schools, and an examination of best practices in inclusive vocational education across different European countries.

1. Introduction—Education Heterogeneity

This study examines the integration of disadvantaged Roma students in Hungarian-language schools in Romania, Slovakia, and Hungary, focusing on the challenges posed by highly segregated education systems. This research explores teachers’ attitudes towards Roma students, aiming to determine whether non-segregated schools, where Roma students are taught alongside mainstream students, present challenges for teachers. A key aspect of our work is reviewing the literature addressing segregated education in the studied region, which is presented below.

Due to the social, economic, and political changes occurring in many countries, the structure of society has often undergone radical transformations, and increased social inequalities have an impact on both territory and education. There are countries where the school system serves the basic social structure, accurately reflecting it through its entire apparatus, supplementary system, internal content, pedagogical culture, and financing (Halász, 2001). While this might be natural, it is not inevitable in developed societies.

Regarding the types of schools available for students, countries tend to exhibit high levels of heterogeneity. It is common for new types of schools to emerge (this phenomenon is primarily notable in the former socialist countries of Central Europe, where the number of sixth–eighth secondary schools and church schools increased significantly after the end of socialism). Although there is social demand in all countries for education to be diverse in the above sense, the emergence of each new type of school has had the opposite effect on unification, as it reinforces inequalities between students. On the one hand, this selective and discriminatory operation of the school system for certain groups of people enables children from the social elite to continue their studies, and on the other hand, it has produced ignorance and exclusion for others. As a result of this process, all factors of elite education focus on increasing performance, whereas the opposite leads to underperformance and the restraint of performance and, consequently, to the reduction in potential performance (Kingdon & Cassen, 2013; Hanafin & Lynch, 2002). Starting school results in counter-selection, where students from disadvantaged ethnic groups are inevitably at a disadvantage and fall behind academically. Due to the hierarchical stratification of society, schools that educate a significant proportion of students from disadvantaged ethnic minorities are unable to provide all children with the opportunities and chances necessary for their optimal development.

Given the results of the PISA surveys, it appears that the teaching community is still not prepared to adequately educate diverse groups of students, both in terms of knowledge and socialization, and to effectively teach students with various social disadvantages, ensuring that they gain sufficient knowledge about the surrounding society and economy. Additionally, there is a need to better connect the school environment with the world of work (PISA, 2023; Result).

1.1. Factors Influencing the Quality of Education

The quality of education is shaped by the complex interplay of various factors that influence teaching, learning, and overall educational outcomes. One of the most critical elements is the competence and dedication of teachers. Educators with strong subject knowledge, effective teaching strategies, and a passion for their work create an environment where students can thrive. The curriculum is another vital factor; it must be relevant, well structured, and designed to meet the needs of a rapidly changing world.

Infrastructure also plays a significant role. Schools equipped with modern facilities, such as technology, libraries, and safe learning spaces, provide a conducive environment for students. Socio-economic factors, including family income, parental education level, and community support, can either enhance or hinder a student’s ability to excel academically. Furthermore, smaller class sizes and favorable teacher–student ratios allow for personalized attention, improving the quality of instruction.

Government policies and funding significantly impact education quality by determining resource allocation, teacher training, and accessibility. In addition, an inclusive school culture that supports diversity and addresses the needs of disadvantaged or marginalized students ensures equity in education. Finally, continuous professional development for teachers and integrating innovative teaching methods keep education systems dynamic and effective. By addressing these factors holistically, societies can enhance the quality of education and ensure better outcomes for all learners (McKinsey & Company, 2007).

1.2. Educational Inequality: The Impact of Segregation and Social Background on School Performance

Educational inequalities are closely related to variations in student achievement. Many problems arise from a segregated school system, as the following example shows. In Hungary, elite schools perform exceptionally well, while schools educating disadvantaged children from ethnic minorities perform significantly below the national average. Assessments have shown that the social or family background, i.e., the environment from which the child starts—encompassing family, local community, settlement, and region—accounts for nearly twenty percent of school performance in Hungary (Marton, 2019). In contrast, in OECD (Economic Cooperation and Development Organization) countries, this figure is only 11.9 percent on average. PISA surveys reveal significant disparities between schools: while in the OECD, on average, school differences account for 36 percent of the variation in reading performance among individual students, in Hungary, this figure is 71 percent (PISA, 2023; Results The State of Learning and Equity in Education; Nagy, 2023). Overall, therefore, the organization of education and a segregated school system significantly impact a country’s performance (Figure 1 and Figure 2; Parvela et al., 2020, p. 5).

Figure 1 illustrates wide variation between countries in terms of creating equitable education. The zero (0.0) point represents the average level of creating equity. The differences strongly correlate with the socio-economic backgrounds of the students. As shown in the figure, students’ socio-economic backgrounds generate the largest difference in their performance.

Figure 2 shows the relative level of performance-related segregation typical of public education. The zero (0.0) point represents the average level of knowledge segregation. As we can see, in Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania, average student performance lags behind due to primary and secondary school segregation.

In Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania, many schools have an over-representation of Roma students. Figure 3 shows the proportion of schools in these countries that enroll entirely or almost exclusively Roma students aged 6–15. These schools significantly underperform compared to the national average, and there is a notable gap in reading comprehension and mathematics.

Disadvantaged students lag behind academically due to socio-economic reasons. The two factors with the most negative effects on academic performance are children’s family backgrounds and differences between schools (Li & Qiu, 2018). A strongly differentiating and selecting/segregating system does not reduce existing social disadvantages among children; instead, it perpetuates them.

1.3. Inequality Between Schools

The poor performance and underdevelopment of educational institutions has prompted education professionals to pay attention to the causes (György, 2012). First, we mention the freedom to choose schools in many countries and the resulting inequality (Boston, 2023). There seems to be a close correlation between school choice, inequality, and poor academic performance (OJBH, 2011). School choice benefits wealthier parents, who send their children to better-quality schools, primarily in places with a low proportion of disadvantaged children from ethnic minorities, even if it requires traveling there.

The other cause that reinforces inequality is mainly financial and system–organizational (educational–administrative) in nature. In the public education system, schools are mostly funded by the state, the church, or foundations. In many places, they also require financial support from the local governments. However, in areas or regions lagging in industrial development, it is challenging for local governments and maintainers to generate the necessary resources to support institutions. This unequal distribution of resources does not make it possible to ensure equal opportunities.

Due to their student composition, schools educating disadvantaged students from ethnic minorities often face situations where teachers leave the school because of the lack of appropriate tools, methods, and motivation (Peck, 2024). This can lead to teacher shortages and a high proportion of “guest teachers” (coming from other schools) in these regions.

Thirdly, there is a close correlation between teachers’ work and performance. In many countries, the teaching profession has low prestige, and teacher salaries are low due to counter-selection (Ingram, 2023). Therefore, in these countries, the most talented students do not apply for admission to teacher training programs, and there are many students who, after qualifying as teachers, either find employment in another field or take up teaching only because they cannot find a “better” job for themselves.

1.4. The Academic Achievement of Disadvantaged Ethnic Minority Children

One of the main dangers is that the parents’ education level almost automatically manifests in their children’s school performance (Kozma, 2000). Family background can be understood as a multidimensional space of inequality, influenced by parents’ social position, the family’s cultural status, the use of cultural mediation, the parents’ financial situation, and the family’s place of residence. The poor academic achievement of children from a disadvantaged background—mostly immigrants or those belonging to the Roma ethnic group—is often due to their disadvantaged socio-economic background, cultural differences, falling behind before entering school, and their lack of expressive language skills. Children who start life in intellectual home environments are ready for school without realizing it, as the language used in schools is familiar to them, whereas children who do not possess the language used in schools and the codes of the school environment will fall behind, and they are unlikely to feel at home in school. The main danger is that these strata-specific disadvantages can become permanent and entrenched during schooling. Those who fall behind in school have no chance of achieving social mobility, and the social hierarchy between individuals determines their life path. It is the individual’s task to change the hierarchical order and fight for higher positions, which is ultimately the key to advancement and mobility (Nagy, 2015).

The most common reason why these students fail at school is their poor vocabulary, which is why they are not accepted by the members of the school community; rather, they are excluded or marginalized. For this reason, even today, one of the most important goals of educational inclusion for disadvantaged students is to bring them to an “educatable” state (Borrero & Yeh, 2010). Disadvantaged students from ethnic minorities are often labeled as “problem students”, primarily due to their poor language skills (Kovácsné Duró, 2019).

Social exclusion can be prevented by implementing a comprehensive education and socialization program that focuses on the student and developing their activity system. We believe that their successful socialization requires a personalized education and training program tailored to their living conditions, personality, and life path so far. The constantly rising proportion of disadvantaged students highlights the need to focus on their school education. However, education reform is necessary to achieve meaningful results (Radó, 2016).

2. Measurements—Materials and Methods

This research aimed to determine whether the teachers in the studied schools perceive the presence of Roma students as a problem and whether they support disadvantaged, primarily Roma students in their studies. Based on our results, we drew conclusions about the education of disadvantaged, primarily Roma students.

2.1. Hypotheses

There is no need to prove that segregated education is ineffective, as PISA surveys provide evidence of this, showing that in countries with a higher proportion of segregated schools, student achievement is lower. In our study, we formulated three hypotheses:

H1. 

In schools where Roma students are educated in non-segregated settings, the majority of teachers believe that Roma students should attend school and are capable of completing at least lower secondary education.

H2. 

Teachers are committed to supporting the academic success of Roma students.

H3. 

Most teachers do not feel adequately prepared to teach Roma students.

2.2. Methodological Framework of Our Research

Our research employed a mixed-methods approach, combining a survey-based attitude assessment with qualitative interviews to explore the presence and support of Roma students in public education institutions. For the quantitative component, we utilized an online self-administered questionnaire designed for Hungarian-speaking teachers in Hungarian-language schools across the three examined countries. The survey was conducted in two formats:

• Online Questionnaire Survey: After developing the questionnaire, it was made available online, allowing teachers from the selected schools to participate voluntarily. The collected responses were processed electronically.
• Interviews: In addition to the survey, structured interviews were conducted in person and online and recorded in audio format to gain insights into principals’ perspectives and experiences.

The data collection process was carried out between 2022 and 2024.

2.3. Sampling

Two schools in Romania, two in Slovakia, and four in Hungary participated in this research (see

Table 1. The total population of the examined countries and the estimated proportion of the Roma population (source: Eurostat, 2024).

Country	Population (Million)	Estimated Roma Population (Million)	Estimated Proportion of the Roma Population (%)
Slovakia	5.4	0.7	13
Romania	19	2	10.5
Hungary	9.6	0.7	7

). Identifying suitable schools proved challenging, as only a limited number in Romania and Slovakia schools met the following criteria: Hungarian as the language of instruction, a proportion of Roma students close to the national average, and the provision of both secondary education and vocational qualifications. We identified only five such schools in Romania and four in Slovakia. In both countries, no official statistical data are available on the names and numbers of Hungarian-language secondary schools. However, our findings suggest that the majority of these schools are grammar schools.

Since, in all three countries, national minority status is based on self-declaration, we relied on teachers to estimate the proportion of Roma students and to assist in selecting the participating schools. The estimated proportion of the Roma population in the studied countries, ranging from 7% to 13%, is presented in Table 1.

During the survey, 124 teachers completed the questionnaire, representing 87% of the teaching staff in the selected schools. Among the respondents, 44 were from Romania, 21 from Slovakia, and 55 from Hungary. The majority were experienced educators with over 10 years of teaching experience (

Table 2. The number of teachers participating in this study and their distribution by age.

Research Participants/Age	2023	%
31–40 years old	45 persons	36%
41–50 years old	41 persons	33%
51–60 years old	33 persons	27%
over 60 years old	5 persons	4%
Total	124	100

).

Additionally, two teachers from each country participated in the qualitative interviews, resulting in six interviews.

2.4. The Structure of the Online Questionnaire

In designing the questionnaire, we prioritized the attitude survey aspect. When developing the closed-ended questions, we aimed to include only essential items, keeping them to a minimum. The questionnaire served as a quantitative tool, and during its evaluation, we applied a categorization-based quantification method. Responses were limited to options such as “yes”, “no”, or a four-point Likert scale: “definitely yes”, “rather yes”, “rather no”, and “definitely no”.

2.5. Processing

The questionnaire responses received online were recorded item by item in a database; statistical analysis was conducted using percentages.

Given the survey’s nature, purpose, and database size, Excel was sufficient for data analysis, eliminating the need for specialized processing software (e.g., SPSS (V30)). It is important to note that the indicators were primarily used to support evaluation rather than statistical hypothesis testing.

3. Research Results

The results of the online questionnaire survey among teachers and the responses from the interviews are summarized below.

3.1. Analysis of Online Questionnaires

Our starting point for processing the questionnaire was that all the respondents taught in schools with a typical proportion of Roma students for the country under investigation at the time of the survey.

3.2. Answers to Questions

The first item (Item 1, Figure 4) shown below aimed to explore teachers’ general opinions on whether Roma students are capable of completing school.

Item 1. ➢ The majority of Roma students are unable to graduate from lower secondary school. ➢ Roma students can complete lower secondary school just like students from the majority society.

On average, only 65% of the respondents believed that Roma youth are capable of completing lower secondary school. However, this perception varied by country. In Romania, where the Roma population exceeds 10%, 63% of the respondents believed that Roma students could complete school. In Slovakia, where the Roma population is around 13%, this figure dropped to 54%. In Hungary, which has the smallest Roma population of the three countries (7%), 75% of the respondents considered it possible for Roma students to finish at least lower secondary school.

Here, we highlight a trend: countries with a higher proportion of Roma in the population (such as Slovakia and Romania) tend to be less optimistic about Roma students’ ability to complete lower secondary school. However, these responses reflect the general conditions in each country rather than the situation in the respondents’ own schools.

We believe that in schools where Roma students are not segregated, teachers have firsthand experience that encourages them to think that Roma students can complete at least lower secondary education.

Figure 5 shows that the number of young Roma people entering the labor market decreases significantly when it comes to completing upper secondary education.

Since there were no significant differences in the responses to the additional questions across the three countries examined, the data were analyzed collectively rather than separately by country.

The next item (Item 2) on the multiple-choice questionnaire (response analysis 2–5) concerns the school performance and academic success of Roma students.

Item 2. ➢ Roma students hinder high-quality teaching. ➢ Roma students do not hinder high-quality teaching.

We consider it important to highlight that 84% of the teachers in the schools with non-segregated Roma students believed that these students did not struggle to achieve successful education. This indicates that the presence and teaching of Roma students in the classroom are not seen as problematic by most teachers.

The next item (Item 3, Figure 6) of the multiple-choice questionnaire also concerns the school performance and academic success of Roma students. For this item, we used a four-point Likert scale: “definitely yes”, “rather yes”, “rather no”, and “definitely no”.

Item 3. ➢ Schools should do everything possible to ensure that learning for Roma students goes smoothly.

About half of the teachers agreed that schools should make every effort to help Roma students learn more effectively. This suggests that in schools where the proportion of Roma students is within reasonable limits, teachers can take their presence into consideration and “manage” it. By “managing”, we mean implementing positive discrimination (e.g., extra lessons) and organizing work in a way that addresses individual needs. We would also like to highlight that nearly a quarter of teachers disagreed with this statement, meaning that they believed that Roma students did not need additional help to achieve adequate performance.

The next item (Item 4, Figure 7) of the multiple-choice questionnaire concerns families. We used a four-point Likert scale: “definitely yes”, “rather yes”, “rather no”, and “definitely no”.

Item 4. ➢ Roma students and their families must ensure that their children complete their secondary education. The secondary school has no responsibility in this regard.

According to the majority of the respondents (77%), it is primarily the responsibility of Roma families to support their children in successfully completing their studies. However, some of the teachers also believed that schools share this responsibility. Based on the responses, we assume that teachers working with Roma students in non-segregated settings teach Roma students from families whose parents can adequately support their children in further education.

The next item of the questionnaire (Item 5) concerns the requirements placed on Roma students. We asked the teachers to respond with “yes” or “no” to the following question.

Item 5. ➢ Roma students must meet the same requirements during their studies as their non-Roma peers.

We did not create a graph for this response because almost all respondents (95%) opposed reducing the requirements for Roma students. This opposition suggests that the respondents did not perceive any issues with the education of Roma students.

The next item (Item 6, Figure 8) of the multiple-choice questionnaire concerns the appropriate preparation of teachers. We use a four-point Likert scale: “definitely yes”, “rather yes”, “rather no”, and “definitely no”.

Item 6. ➢ The teachers are prepared to adequately teach the Roma students.

The 89% positive response rate (23% “definitely yes”, 66% “rather yes”) to the above question indicates that the teachers who felt prepared to teach Roma students, i.e., where the proportion of Roma students was not over-represented, did not find their presence problematic.

The next item (Item 7) of the multiple-choice questionnaire was an open question concerning the need for teacher support.

Item 7. ➢ In which areas do you need help teaching Roma students?

The respondents were asked to select multiple areas in which they required assistance for teaching Roma students. The three most frequently mentioned areas of support were the following:

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Methodological help—The teachers expressed a need for effective teaching methods that could better address the specific challenges of Roma students;

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Access to specialist literature—Many of the respondents highlighted the importance of having resources tailored to the unique needs of Roma students;

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Experiential teacher training—The respondents emphasized the value of training courses that offer practical, hands-on experience, helping them to improve their teaching strategies for Roma students.

These areas were identified as crucial for ensuring the successful education of Roma students and for enhancing the teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom.

3.2.1. Summary of Answers to Online Questions

The questionnaire covered three main topics, with the first focusing on the teachers’ perceptions of Roma students’ ability to complete primary education. The results suggest that in countries with a higher Roma population, teachers have more reservations, and a significant portion of teachers believe that Roma students’ presence hinders high-quality teaching, reflecting potential biases or concerns.

The second section of the questionnaire examined teachers’ perspectives on the treatment of Roma students. Most of the teachers did not see difficulties in teaching Roma students, though some viewed their presence as a challenge, possibly due to biases or structural issues. Opinions were divided on whether schools should provide extra support, with some emphasizing the need for additional help, while others advocated for equal treatment. The teachers also highlighted the importance of family involvement in education, and while the majority opposed lowering academic standards, this did not necessarily mean that they believed Roma students could succeed without extra support.

Most of the teachers felt confident and well prepared to teach Roma students, but it remains unclear whether their preparedness fully addresses the unique cultural and educational needs of these students or if additional training and support are needed.

Although many of the teachers felt prepared to teach Roma students, they emphasized the need for methodological support, specialist literature, and training to effectively address the specific challenges that these students may face.

3.2.2. The Pedagogical Culture of Principals: Summary of Answers to Interview Questions About Roma Students

The survey was conducted with six principals from eight schools (two Romanian, one Slovak, and three Hungarian).

A thematic analysis was carried out to identify key themes emerging from the principals’ responses. This method involved systematically categorizing data.

The coding process followed these steps:

Initial coding—The responses were broken down into meaningful segments and assigned preliminary labels based on key topics (e.g., “extra work”, “integration challenges”, “positive discrimination”, and “teacher training”);

Axial coding—Connections between codes were established, grouping related themes into broader categories (e.g., “educational challenges”, “support strategies”, “attitudes toward positive discrimination”);

Selective coding—Core themes were identified, summarizing the overall narrative provided by the respondents.

• Question 1: Does educating Roma students mean extra work? Were there any problems teaching these students? If so, how did you deal with them?

The majority of the respondents indicated that educating Roma students did not require extra work, and the teachers felt adequately prepared to teach them in these schools. The principals stated that they had the necessary training and resources to manage diverse classrooms, which included teaching Roma students. They emphasized that, for the most part, Roma students integrate well into the regular curriculum without additional challenges. This smaller proportion of Roma students means that educators can offer individual attention to those who may need it without overwhelming their workload.

Moreover, the principals who expressed concerns noted that the challenges that they faced were not unique to Roma students but were common in any diverse classroom. They said that Roma students benefit from a structured approach and clear expectations. In cases where difficulties arose, the principals reported addressing them through additional support such as tutoring, adjusted teaching methods, or collaboration with specialized staff. However, these measures were not viewed as extraordinary but rather as part of regular teaching practices aimed at ensuring all students succeed. Overall, the responses suggested that the education of Roma students is seen as an integral part of the school system, not requiring additional resources or extraordinary effort beyond what is typically needed for students.

• Question 2: In your opinion, is it necessary to implement positive discrimination for Roma students to ensure that they complete their studies smoothly?

The respondents generally believed that schools provide Roma students with the necessary conditions to complete their studies smoothly, ensuring equal access to education. They pointed out that Roma students are included in the same educational programs and have the same resources as other students. The principals felt that, with appropriate support, Roma students are capable of completing their studies without positive discrimination. However, several of the principals mentioned that teachers do not differentiate between students in their teaching methods or assessments, treating all students equally regardless of background.

These principals said that this lack of differentiation may sometimes overlook the unique challenges faced by Roma students, such as language barriers or socio-economic disadvantages. Some of the respondents argued that a more individualized approach, rather than one-size-fits-all methods, could help to address the specific needs of Roma students more effectively. Others believed that positive discrimination, such as targeted support or additional resources, may not be necessary as long as the educational system continues to provide equal opportunities for all students. Despite this, there was recognition that Roma students might still face obstacles that could be mitigated with more tailored interventions. Overall, while Roma students can succeed within the existing educational framework, additional support could enhance their educational experience and outcomes.

• Question 3: How do you think teachers can help Roma students to integrate into classrooms and complete their studies smoothly?

According to the principals, teachers play a crucial role in fostering mutual acceptance between Roma and non-Roma students through the didactic methods employed in the classroom. They also highlighted the importance of joint programs and activities outside the classroom, such as collaborative projects or extracurricular events, to build relationships and promote understanding between students of different backgrounds. These initiatives, they noted, help students to learn to respect each other’s differences and cultures and work together in a positive environment. However, the principals acknowledged that the time-consuming nature of sensitization presents a significant challenge. They pointed out that changing students’ attitudes towards Roma students is not an immediate process and may take years to achieve meaningful results.

The principals emphasized the importance of taking a step-by-step approach. Teachers are encouraged to integrate sensitization efforts into their daily routines and lessons to gradually shift attitudes in a positive direction. This methodical approach is seen as essential in creating a school culture in which Roma students feel accepted and supported. Furthermore, the principals stressed the need for ongoing training and professional development to equip teachers with the tools and strategies necessary for effectively integrating Roma students. They believed that fostering an inclusive environment requires continuous effort from both teaching staff and the school community as a whole. The overall goal is to create a school culture in which all students, regardless of their background, can integrate seamlessly and successfully complete their studies.

• Question 4: Are training courses aimed at successfully educating Roma students useful?

The respondents’ opinions on the usefulness of training courses aimed at educating Roma students varied significantly. Six of the principals felt that the teachers were adequately prepared to teach Roma students, believing that they possessed the necessary knowledge and skills to educate them effectively. These principals emphasized that the teachers were already using a range of strategies to meet the needs of Roma students, including differentiated instruction and targeted support. They believed that additional training courses may not be essential, as the teachers were already equipped to handle the challenges of teaching Roma students.

However, two of the principals expressed uncertainty about the effectiveness of the current teacher preparation. These respondents could not decide on whether the teachers’ existing knowledge was sufficient for teaching Roma students and were unsure of what new opportunities or strategies training courses might offer. They suggested that while the teachers may have basic knowledge, specialized training could provide them with more specific insights into the cultural and educational challenges that Roma students face. They believed that targeted training courses could help the teachers refine their approaches and deepen their understanding of Roma students’ needs. Overall, there was a split opinion regarding whether additional training was needed, with some of the principals (four out of six) feeling confident in the teachers’ abilities, and others advocating for more specialized support to enhance Roma students’ educational experience.

According to the interviews, the principals generally viewed Roma student integration as part of their regular teaching duties rather than as an additional burden. Opinions were divided on whether targeted support was necessary, with some emphasizing equal treatment and others acknowledging the need for more individualized interventions. Most of the respondents believed that the teachers were sufficiently trained, but some suggested that additional specialized training could improve educational outcomes for Roma students. Emphasis was placed on fostering an inclusive school culture through structured sensitization and extracurricular activities. This structured coding provided a comprehensive understanding of how Hungarian-language secondary school principals perceive the education of Roma students.

4. Discussion

Research conducted by Eurydice reveals that segregated education has a profound negative effect on the academic success and social integration of Roma students. Consequently, we investigated how educators perceive the challenges and opportunities of teaching Roma students within non-segregated, inclusive classrooms. By focusing on teacher perceptions, we aimed to gain insights into the effectiveness of non-segregated education and identify the potential factors required for fostering Roma students’ success in such environments. This research seeks to contribute to the growing body of literature on inclusive education and offer practical implications for improving the educational outcomes of Roma students.

Our study focused on how teachers perceive the presence of Roma students, the need for different treatment, and whether teachers possess the necessary knowledge and competence. Teachers, who must meet both professional and personal requirements, play a key role in the successful education of Roma students. Their attitudes, beliefs, and pedagogical approaches are crucial in determining the educational outcomes of Roma students, as teachers’ perceptions often shape classroom dynamics and student engagement. Furthermore, this study examines how teachers’ own biases and experiences with Roma students may influence their teaching practices, potentially affecting the integration of Roma students in a non-segregated educational setting. Understanding these factors is vital for developing effective strategies for teacher training and educational reforms aimed at improving the academic success of Roma students.

We support Kingdon and Cassen’s (2013) research due to our finding that in institutions in which disadvantaged (Roma) students are not segregated, teachers tend to accept their presence and often go beyond the basic requirements of teaching to support these students effectively. They adapt their pedagogical methods to meet the unique needs of Roma students, helping them to overcome potential academic barriers and succeed in their studies. Supporting the research of Li and Qiu (2018), teachers in integrated settings recognize the importance of providing equal educational opportunities to all students, regardless of their background. This attitude is crucial in fostering an inclusive learning environment where Roma students feel valued and encouraged to participate fully in their education.

Our first hypothesis, which proposed that the majority of the teachers in the examined schools believed that Roma students should be included in public education and could complete at least lower secondary school, was confirmed. The findings indicate that teachers generally accept the presence of Roma students in schools, reflecting an inclusive attitude towards their integration. This acceptance suggests that teachers acknowledge the potential of Roma students and recognize their right to equitable educational opportunities. Ultimately, these findings underscore the potential for inclusive educational practices to contribute to the successful integration and academic achievement of Roma students in schools.

Our second hypothesis, which posited that teachers are supportive of the school success of Roma students, was also confirmed. The data revealed that a significant majority of the teachers expressed a strong commitment to facilitating the academic success of Roma students, reflecting their belief in the students’ potential. The teachers’ support for Roma students’ success was closely tied to their broader commitment to fostering an inclusive educational environment. These findings suggest that teachers’ positive attitudes towards Roma students’ potential are instrumental in shaping a supportive learning atmosphere. Overall, the results indicate that teacher support is critical for enhancing the educational outcomes of Roma students in the investigated non-segregated settings.

However, our third hypothesis, which suggested that the majority of teachers do not feel prepared to teach Roma students, was not confirmed. Contrary to expectations, the majority of the teachers in the examined schools reported feeling adequately prepared to educate Roma students. The responses suggest that, in many cases, the teachers had developed sufficient knowledge and expertise to effectively teach Roma students without specialized assistance. The challenges faced by teachers were less about a lack of preparation and more related to contextual and structural factors that may impact the overall success of Roma students in education. This study also suggests that, in certain settings, professional development opportunities have effectively equipped teachers to work with Roma students. These findings imply that a more systemic approach to teacher training and resource allocation could further enhance teachers’ capacity to integrate Roma students into non-segregated schools. Therefore, the issue of preparedness is more complex than initially assumed, with broader institutional factors critical in shaping teachers’ readiness to teach Roma students effectively.

Contrary to this assumption, in the schools where the proportion of Roma students aligned with the national average, the teachers did not report issues with their education. It appears that teachers possess proper methodological repertoire and are knowledgeable about individualized pedagogical tools and educational measurement systems that consider students’ abilities and differences. We also suppose that organizing classroom work does not require significant energy.

Based on the findings of our research, we propose several critical steps to ensure the successful education of Roma students:

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Eliminate segregated schools and classes as much as possible to ensure equal educational opportunities for all students.

For example, integrate Roma students into mainstream schools rather than placing them in separate institutions or special education classes. In Hungary, the “Tanoda” programs (Fejes et al., 2016) have successfully supported Roma students in mixed schools by providing after-school tutoring and mentorship.

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Promote the equal distribution of Roma students among schools and classes, facilitating their integration into mainstream education.

For instance, introduce policies that prevent the concentration of Roma students in specific schools or classrooms. In Spain, some regions have implemented quotas and school zoning policies to ensure a more balanced distribution of Roma students across different institutions (Rutigliano, 2020).

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Prepare teachers to manage academically and socially diverse classrooms, equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to address the varied needs of all students.

For example, provide professional development programs focused on inclusive teaching strategies, such as differentiated instruction and culturally responsive pedagogy. In Slovakia, teacher training initiatives have helped educators to develop methods to support Roma students in diverse classrooms (OECD, 2015).

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Ensure quality education for all students by creating an inclusive environment where every student, regardless of their background, has the opportunity to succeed.

For instance, implement mentoring programs where older students or trained volunteers support Roma students in their studies. In the Czech Republic, mentorship programs (Bogdan, 2023) have helped Roma students to improve their academic performance and transition into higher education.

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Foster effective learning by cultivating an environment that supports diverse learning styles and abilities, ensuring that all students can engage with the curriculum in ways that suit their individual needs.

For example, use adaptive learning technologies and project-based teaching methods to cater to different learning styles. In Finland, digital tools and individualized learning plans have been used to support students from diverse backgrounds, including Roma students, in achieving academic success (Gottschalk & Weise, 2023).

As the McKinsey report states (McKinsey & Company, 2007), by implementing these measures, we can create a more equitable educational system in which Roma students, alongside their peers, are empowered to succeed academically and socially. This approach not only benefits Roma students but also contributes to overall societal well-being.

5. Conclusions

The primary goal of our research was to assess teachers’ attitudes towards the academic performance of Roma students and to formulate guidelines for potential support. Overall, we found that teachers in non-segregated schools generally have an accepting attitude towards the education of Roma students, indicating that their presence does not pose a challenge for a significant proportion of teachers.

Our study draws attention to the fact that the school systems in many countries foster strong segregation processes. To address the educational challenges faced by disadvantaged students from ethnic minorities, it is increasingly evident that segregation, which contributes to the ineffectiveness of Roma students’ education, must be eliminated. Indeed, if the majority of Roma children were not educated in segregated schools, which hinder their success, both their performance and the performance of teachers, who often struggle with feelings of failure, would likely improve.

We believe that legislative change focusing on classroom and school integration in public education could be a viable path, although it carries significant political risks and costs. In the short term, developing and monitoring a desegregation strategy could provide a solution. However, education policymakers in the examined countries are often reluctant to acknowledge that their school systems reflect significant social inequalities. They also fail to differentiate between social movements based on skill use (production, entire operation) and basic social systems for skill production. In the long term, recognizing these issues could lead to social policies that avoid simply accepting the same inequalities in opportunity present in schooling and knowledge production as those in society at large.

Currently, the segregated school systems in these countries result in elite education factors that focus on increasing performance, which leads to underachievement, limits performance, and ultimately stifles potential. In the long term, this hinders economic development. We believe that resolving this issue requires legislative change; however, this comes with high political risks and costs.

Based on these research findings, potential directions for further research include:

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A comparative analysis of vocational and grammar secondary schools in the integration of Roma students.

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Longitudinal studies on the long-term educational and career outcomes of Roma students in vocational schools.

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An exploration of best practices in inclusive vocational education across different European countries.