Entrepreneurial Career: A Critical Occupational Decision

Abstract

The formation of entrepreneurial intentions and their translation into behaviors still remains unclear. This study contributes to the field by examining socio-cognitive concepts and dysfunctional career beliefs that have not been employed in previous studies. Emotional states are one primary source of self-efficacy, an important driver of career decisions. In turn, emotional states interact with dysfunctional beliefs when making entrepreneurial career decisions. Using a sample of 323 participants, the analysis revealed two key findings. First, positive emotions significantly predict both entrepreneurial intentions and subsequent behaviors. Second, “criticality of the decision”, a dysfunctional career belief, was found to be a key moderator that (a) mitigates the negative effects of adverse emotions on entrepreneurial intentions and (b) weakens the relationship between intentions and actual entrepreneurial actions. These findings are novel and deepen our understanding of the emotional and cognitive processes underlying entrepreneurial career choices. They also provide theoretical insights on the connection between entrepreneurship and career theory and have practical implications for educators and career counselors who aim to support the next generation of aspiring entrepreneurs systematically and coherently.

1. Introduction

In today’s rapidly evolving and uncertain labor market, entrepreneurial career choices are not limited to traditional self-employment. They increasingly include a wide spectrum of innovative ventures, such as technology-based start-ups and social enterprises, reflecting broader societal shifts toward flexibility, autonomy, and innovation in the workplace. As a result, entrepreneurship is now seen as a viable occupational path, particularly among younger generations seeking purpose-driven and self-directed work (Douglas & Shepherd, 2002; Nabi et al., 2018).

In this context, attention has increasingly turned to theoretical frameworks that explain how individuals come to consider entrepreneurship as a career path. Career development theories have recently been proposed as a more appropriate way to confront how entrepreneurial career decisions are generated (Kakouris et al., 2023). Among these, Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Bandura, 1986; Lent & Brown, 2013) has gained prominence, offering a framework through which researchers explore the psychological and contextual factors that shape entrepreneurial career choices (Belchior & Lyons, 2021; Liguori et al., 2020). At the core of this theory is the concept of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, which has been the predominant focus of empirical research and has consistently emerged as a robust predictor of entrepreneurial intention. As entrepreneurial self-efficacy has been the cornerstone for vast empirical research from the beginning of the millennium (Newman et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2005; Wilson et al., 2009), the concept has proven mutable (Gielnik et al., 2020) and its relationship with long-term entrepreneurial intention has been questioned (N. F. Krueger, 2017). It also depends on a large variety of personal and contextual factors (Newman et al., 2019) with little research regarding its sources (Adebusuyi et al., 2022; Bandura, 1986). Concurrently, entrepreneurial intentions do not always translate into behaviors rendering the intention–behavior relationship yet unclear. Building on the well-known effect of efficacy-driven intentions in the context of career theory, the research question that motivates the present study is twofold: How do sources of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and especially emotional states, influence intentions and subsequent behaviors? And how do contextual career beliefs moderate this effect?

Albert Bandura has identified four primary sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and physiological/emotional states. While numerous studies (e.g., Dehghanpour Farashah, 2015; Seo & Mesquita, 2024; Kong et al., 2020) have extensively explored the first three sources and established their positive association with entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intention, the fourth source—physiological and emotional states—remains comparatively under-explored within entrepreneurship research, despite its recognized importance in career decision-making (Lent & Brown, 2013; Savickas, 2013). In recent years, the body of research on emotions in entrepreneurship has notably grown (e.g., Lu et al., 2022; Baron, 2008) but with little attention on how emotions could shape intentions and behaviors. This study aims to systematically integrate emotional states into the SCCT framework by emphasizing their role as a primary source of entrepreneurial self-efficacy that drives intention.

More specifically, emotional responses such as anxiety, fear, frustration, enthusiasm, hope, and pride can influence how individuals evaluate potential career paths. Negative emotions are conceptualized as those that typically elicit avoidance tendencies or cognitive interference—such as anxiety, fear, self-doubt, and frustration—whereas positive emotions include those that promote proactive behavior and resilience, such as enthusiasm, hope, curiosity, and pride. Negative emotions may lead to avoidance or indecision, while positive emotions can enhance motivation and persistence in pursuing challenging career goals (Anghel & Gati, 2021). Existing entrepreneurship literature on emotions (e.g., Ukil et al., 2025; Pan et al., 2025; M. D. Foo, 2011; M.-D. Foo et al., 2009; Zampetakis et al., 2009; Cardon et al., 2012) has grown significantly, yet few studies incorporate emotional states as a formal source of self-efficacy within SCCT.

Moreover, this study uniquely introduces and empirically validates the concept of dysfunctional career beliefs within the entrepreneurial context, bridging a crucial gap in entrepreneurship research. These beliefs refer to irrational or limiting thoughts about oneself or the world of work that can obstruct career decision-making, such as fear of failure, perfectionism, or rigid views on career paths (Hechtlinger et al., 2019). Dysfunctional beliefs are contextual as far as entrepreneurship can be considered as a career (Austin et al., 2004).

Despite extensive research on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intention, there remains a critical gap in understanding the sources of entrepreneurial self-efficacy—particularly the role of physiological and emotional states—in shaping entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors. While mastery experiences, social persuasion, and vicarious learning have been widely studied (Seo & Mesquita, 2024; Kong et al., 2020), the emotional dimension as a source of self-efficacy is comparatively under-explored, especially within the entrepreneurial career context. And furthermore, although dysfunctional career beliefs have been extensively examined in general career theory, their influence within entrepreneurship remains largely uninvestigated, despite entrepreneurship’s unique uncertainties and demands. Thus, the integration of these two under-explored elements within the entrepreneurial SCCT framework is a unique and meaningful endeavor that motivated the present study.

Given this context, this study aims to address the previous gaps by: (1) investigating how emotional states contribute to intention formation and (2) exploring the moderating role of dysfunctional career beliefs on the relationship between emotional states and intentions, as well as on the translation of intentions into nascent entrepreneurial behaviors. By contrasting the well-established sources of self-efficacy with the less-studied emotional source and incorporating dysfunctional career beliefs as a contextual moderator within the SCCT framework, this research offers a more refined understanding of the emotional and cognitive mechanisms underlying entrepreneurial career intentions and behaviors, thereby extending current entrepreneurship literature and providing practical insights for entrepreneurship education and career counseling.

The remaining of the article is organized as follows: First, the theoretical background is addressed. Second, the materials and methods used in the research are presented. Third, the results and findings are discussed. Finally, the implications for theory and practice are highlighted.

2. Theoretical Background and Research Hypotheses

2.1. Entrepreneurial Intention

Entrepreneurial intention (Thompson, 2009) refers to the self-acknowledged conviction by an individual that they intend to start a new business venture at some point in the future. In recent years, researchers have argued that entrepreneurial intentions may not consistently translate into actual behavior due to intervening personal or contextual factors, such as emotional states or environmental uncertainty (N. F. Krueger, 2017). As a result, nascent entrepreneurial behaviors have increasingly been adopted as a more reliable predictor of entrepreneurial action (Belchior & Lyons, 2021).

2.2. Nascent Entrepreneurial Behaviors

Nascent entrepreneurial behaviors refer to the preparatory actions undertaken by individuals who intend to start a business, typically prior to the official launch of the venture (Davidsson, 2006; Reynolds & Curtin, 2008). These behaviors indicate movement beyond intention and into the early stages of entrepreneurial implementation. Thereupon, nascent entrepreneurial behaviors are examined in tandem with intentions (Lent et al., 1994).

2.3. Physiological and Emotional States

In this study, emotional states are conceptualized as a critical source of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, reflecting the extent to which individuals feel capable of managing the entrepreneurial decision-making process under varying emotional conditions. The selection of specific emotional states, both positive (e.g., excitement, determination) and negative (e.g., anxiety, upset), was adopted from established career decision-making self-efficacy scales (Lent et al., 2017). This adoption is grounded on the theoretical premise that emotions provide important affective information that influences cognitive appraisals of capability and risk in entrepreneurial contexts (Baumeister et al., 2007; M.-D. Foo et al., 2009). Positive emotions are hypothesized to enhance motivation and persistence by broadening perceived possibilities, while negative emotions can both hinder or catalyze entrepreneurial intention depending on cognitive interpretation. Thus, emotional states represent a dynamic, affective dimension of self-efficacy that is particularly salient in uncertain and emotionally charged entrepreneurial endeavors.

The role of emotions in entrepreneurship has been highlighted in various research (Karimi, 2020; Lackéus, 2014; Zampetakis et al., 2009), although more research is suggested in this direction (Cardon et al., 2012). In the context of business failure, Byrne and Shepherd (2015) found that negative emotions motivated entrepreneurs to make sense of their loss, and that positive emotions unlocked the necessary cognitive resources to revisit, and eventually learn from, the failing experience. There is therefore a strong correlation between emotional states, physical responses and feelings of success. Recent research highlights the impact of emotional intelligence on the formation of entrepreneurial intention (Nwibe & Ogbuanya, 2024; Zampetakis et al., 2009). Drawing on the affect-as-information perspective, Baumeister et al. (2007) propose a direct impact of affect on behavior, while M.-D. Foo et al. (2009) suggest that even for affect, cognition plays a critical role in influencing behavior. This interplay between affect and cognition is further illustrated in the work of Crosina et al. (2024), who explore the role of negative emotions in entrepreneurship education. They underscore that negative emotional reactions to critical incidents (e.g., entrepreneurial failure) are common and significant. While they can lead potential entrepreneurs to retreat, they can also open the door to higher-order learning that accelerates entrepreneurs’ self-awareness and development (Shepherd, 2004), thus developing resilient entrepreneurial mindsets through cycles of learning. Learning involves sensemaking processes (Byrne & Shepherd, 2015) which help individuals understand situations that are confusing, or that in some way violate their expectations, de-escalate negative emotions and cognitively re-frame the incident they are facing (Weick, 1995). Accordingly, the following research hypothesis is articulated:

H1: 

Physiological and emotional states (as a key source of self-efficacy) significantly predict the entrepreneurial intention.

2.4. Entrepreneurship as Career and Dysfunctional Career Beliefs

Most individuals develop diverse concepts of what career means to them, which greatly influence their choice of career path. Brousseau et al. (1996) identified four main career paths: linear, expert, spiral, and transitory, each reflecting various career motivations. The linear orientation places a strong emphasis on achievement-driven upward mobility within a hierarchy. The expert approach emphasizes profound specialization in a particular domain and professional competence. The spiral orientation entails periodic shifts in linked domains, with personal growth and creativity as primary motivators. Finally, the transitory orientation is distinguished by frequent transitions between unrelated positions or industries, where independence and diversity are primary motivators. These career orientations influence also how people see and pursue entrepreneurship (Politis, 2005). For instance, people with spiral or transitory orientations are more likely to see entrepreneurship as a means of growth and autonomy, as they are open to job change and exploration. On the other hand, people with a linear or expert orientation may see entrepreneurship more cautiously because they value stability, hierarchy, or deep specialization that conflicts with uncertainty and fluidity typically associated with entrepreneurial careers (Politis, 2005).

Further, dysfunctional career beliefs—irrational or limiting cognitions individuals hold about themselves, their abilities, or the career decision-making process—may hinder effective career exploration and decision-making (Krumboltz, 1990). They frequently appear as exaggerated fears of failure, perfectionist standards, or rigid assumptions about career options, ultimately hindering effective decision-making. Grounded in cognitive-behavioral career theory, dysfunctional beliefs are understood to negatively influence self-efficacy and outcome expectations, which are critical components in career development (Hechtlinger et al., 2019). By distorting an individual’s perception of possible career paths and their own capacity to succeed, these beliefs often result in avoidance behaviors, indecision, and reduced motivation to pursue certain occupations (Kronholz & Osborn, 2022; Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou et al., 2012).

For instance, individuals who believe others (professionals or significant others) know better than they do what career they should pursue are less likely to be motivated to invest time and effort in making a decision, while others who view career choice as a once-in-a-lifetime decision (criticality of the decision) are more likely to prolong the process in order to avoid making the wrong choice (Sampson et al., 2013). Such dysfunctional thoughts make the decision-making procedure harder and force the individual to avoid it entirely or to transfer the responsibility of choosing to significant others, thereby risking the individual’s overall career development. In contrast, the absence of negative and dysfunctional career thoughts helps individuals to successfully integrate their knowledge about themselves and the business world (Saunders et al., 2000).

Despite their central role in career theory, dysfunctional career beliefs have received limited attention within entrepreneurship research. This gap is noteworthy given that entrepreneurship can be conceptualized as a distinct career path with unique uncertainties and challenges (Nabi et al., 2010). The presence of dysfunctional beliefs may significantly affect entrepreneurial intention and behavior by undermining confidence and resilience in the face of risk and ambiguity. Therefore, dysfunctional career beliefs are expected to moderate the impact of emotional states on the formation of entrepreneurial intention and the conversion of entrepreneurial intents to nascent entrepreneurial behaviors. Accordingly, the following research hypotheses are articulated:

H2: 

Dysfunctional career beliefs act as a moderator between the sources of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention.

H3: 

Dysfunctional career beliefs moderate the impact of entrepreneurial intention on nascent entrepreneurial behaviors.

The research hypotheses are summarized in the conceptual model of Figure 1.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Participants

Data were collected using the LimeSurvey online tool, version 2.06. A purposive sampling strategy was employed, targeting individuals who were likely to provide relevant information for the study. Specifically, questionnaires were distributed through career offices at Greek universities and agencies, which allowed access to students and alumni with career-related concerns. Additionally, initial respondents were invited to share the survey with acquaintances, to increase the variation in the sample (Patton, 2015). This approach was chosen because it offers practical advantages, including efficient access to a relevant population, reduced costs, and timely data collection, while remaining appropriate for exploratory quantitative research.

The target population consisted primarily of (but not confined to) individuals residing in Attica, the Peloponnese, and Crete, regions that accommodate more than half of the Greek population. The minimum age of 16 was intentionally selected because it corresponds to the completion of compulsory education in Greece and represents the legal threshold for entering the labor market, allowing the inclusion of individuals who are beginning to make career-related decisions.

The online questionnaire was distributed, together with a brief explanation of the purpose of the study, the significance of taking part in it, anonymity and confidentiality requirements. Thus, it was deemed that the participants’ agreement to fill out the questionnaires constituted informed consent. They could also opt out answering at any time. These precautions fulfill the ethical conditions for quantitative research in Greece validated by the home university. To avoid any biases coming from the question order in each construct (e.g., grouping positive statements first or the opposite), the questions (items) were presented in random sequence for each respondent. A dropout rate of 44.35% was observed. Similar rates are observed in many other studies which employ lengthy questionnaires. To check possible reasons for dropping out, the instrument collected the timings of responding which differ, on the mean, from 14.5 min for the 323 full responses to 4 min for the 259 partial responses. No significant differences were observed between these two groups, so the drop-out rate is likely attributed to the length of the questionnaire and the corresponding effort.

The final sample consisted of N = 323 participants, aged 16 to 66 years, with a mean age of 34.55 years (SD = 12.22). Of them, 44% were males and 56% were females, 48.9% declared that they had some form of entrepreneurship education, while the remaining 51.1% had not attended any form of such education. A total of 39.3% of participants came from a business family background, whereas the remaining 60.7% did not. Furthermore, 26.3% were secondary school graduates; 39.9% held a Bachelor’s degree, 28.8% a Master’s degree and 5% a PhD.

3.2. Constructs and Measures

For the data instrument, the following constructs were employed. Beliefs about Career Decisions Questionnaire (BCD—previous name DCB: Dysfunctional Career decision Beliefs) (Hechtlinger et al., 2019). BCD consists of 16 statements investigating difficulties in decision-making regarding the career path. They are scored on a nine-point Likert type scale (1 = completely disagree to 9 = completely agree). BCD assesses the following factors: (i) The role of chance or fate (CHANCE), (ii) The criticality of the decision (CRIT), (iii) The role of significant others (OTH), (iv) The role of professional help (PH), and (v) The role of gender stereotypes (GS). Internal consistency reliability coefficients are above α > 0.70 for all factors. The factor structure of the questionnaire was tested with exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and there is evidence of concurrent validity with other decision-making tools. BCD was standardized for the Greek population with permission from I. Gati (1/9/2018). In the present sample, Cronbach’s α = 0.836 > 0.7, Average Variance Extracted AVE = 0.312 and Composite Reliability is CR = 0.867, i.e., well above 0.6. The low AVE (<0.5) may be due to the multidimensionality of the construct.

Entrepreneurial Intention Scale (Thompson, 2009). It comprises six items/statements (direct and inverted) that respondents rate using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = absolutely false, 7 = completely true. For the sample in the current study, Cronbach’s α reached 0.759 (AVE = 0.458, CR = 0.83). Hence, the scale appeared to have acceptable internal consistency.

Physiological and emotional states. This scale was adopted from the measure of physiological and emotional states developed by Lent et al. to assess sources of self-efficacy in career decision-making (Lent et al., 2017). Ιn the present study, the same emotional dimensions were contextualized within the domain of entrepreneurship exploration and decision-making (see Appendix A). Participants were presented with a set of positive and negative feeling states (e.g., “upset,” “excited”), and asked to indicate the extent to which they had experienced each one in a 5-point scale, from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely) when thinking entrepreneurship as career. The scale contains 4 items for the PE and 4 items for the NE subscales (Appendix A). Cronbach’s alphas for these constructs were found 0.883 (AVE = 0.743, CR = 0.920) for PE and 0.876 (AVE = 0.729, CR = 0.915) for NE.

Nascent Entrepreneurial Behavior Scale (Belchior & Lyons, 2021). NEB scale consists of 16 specific activities, drawing from Carter et al. (1996), McGee et al. (2009) and Vanevenhoven and Liguori (2013), that nascent entrepreneurs engage in before setting up their business (e.g., bought facilities/equipment, looked for facilities, invested own money) (Belchior & Lyons, 2021). Questions asked participants if they had completed any of these nascent activities (yes or no). Participants who stated that they had already performed at least one activity from the 16 nascent entrepreneurial activities, were qualified as “nascent entrepreneurs” while the total unidimensional scale sums the number of activities declared.

Demographics. Demographic and relevant information was assessed (8 questions in total). Specifically, respondents’ gender, age, educational level and work experience were gathered. In addition, participants were asked whether they had ever taken an entrepreneurship course and whether their parents owned or operated a business. Age and gender are used as control variables in the subsequent regression models. There is general agreement in previous research that demographic characteristics such as age and gender play a key role on entrepreneurial intentions (Laouiti et al., 2022; Matherne Iii et al., 2020; Paray & Kumar, 2020). In particular, research findings reveal a higher average entrepreneurial intention for men compared to women (Shinnar et al., 2014). Moreover, older individuals with more positive attitudes have a higher propensity to start ventures than younger ones (Liao et al., 2022).

4. Results

The overall Cronbach’s alpha of the instrument was 0.911. In

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and significant Pearson correlations for the main variables. Sqrt (AVE) values are shown in the diagonal.

	Mean	SD	GENDER	AGE	NEB	INT	BCD	POS. EMOTIONS	NEG. EMOTIONS
GENDER	1.56	0.48	-
AGE	34.55	12.22	61.038 a	-
NEB	1.48	2.69	24.506 *	0.252 ***	-
INT	3.90	1.43			0.373 ***	0.677
BCD	3.37	1.07		0.225 ***			0.558
POS. EMOTIONS	3.44	1.06		0.155 **	0.297 ***	0.494 ***		0.862
NEG. EMOTIONS	2.77	1.09	0.138 *	−0.173 **					0.854

^a p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

, means, standard deviations and correlations of the variables are shown. Since all sqrt (AVE) values are greater than the correlations, there is evidence for discriminant validity (criterion Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Hypotheses H1, H2 and H3 for the effect of emotional states on entrepreneurial intentions and of entrepreneurial intention on nascent entrepreneurial behaviors, moderated by dysfunctional career beliefs (BCD), are examined through hierarchical linear regressions, centered variables, controlling for age and gender (

Table 2. Dependent variable INTENTION. Only significant coefficients are shown for the interaction terms.

	Model 0		Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
	β	t-value	Β	t-value	Β	t-value	Β	t-value
Control variables
GENDER	−0.100 a	−1.736	−0.061	−1.181	−0.070	−1.297	−0.077	−1.411
AGE	0.091	1.577	0.042	0.818	0.046	0.848	0.044	0..822
Emotional states
PE			0.483 ***	9.536	0.477 ***	9.374	0.472 ***	9.075
NE			−0.015	−0.3	−0.001	−0.010	−0.009	−0.174
BCD
CHANCE					−0.017	−0.276	−0.002	−0.029
OTH					−0.093	−1.360	−0.102	−1.486
CRIT					−0.086	−1.476	−0.053	−0.901
PH					0.071	1.087	0.081	1.207
GS					0.011	0.180	0.029	0.464
Interactions (significant)
NE × CRIT							0.173 **	2.976
ΔF	3.185 *		45.565 ***		1.158		2.029 *
ΔR2	0.021		0.23		0.015		0.049

^a p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

and

Table 3. Dependent variable NEB. Only significant coefficients for the interaction terms are shown.

	Model 0		Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
	Β	t-value	Β	t-value	Β	t-value	Β	t-value
Control variables
GENDER	−0.135 *	−2.375	−0.106 a	−1.945	−0.097 a	−1.698	−0.082	−1.428
AGE	0.181 **	3.196	0.155 **	2.846	0.175 **	3.066	0.167 **	2.927
Entrepreneurial intention
ΙΝΤ			0.283 ***	5.206	0.286 ***	5.206	0.25 ***	4.398
BCD
CHANCE					−0.136 *	−2.054	−0.129 a	−1.947
OTH					0.112	1.528	0.103	1.398
CRIT					−0.054	−0.856	−0.025	−0.395
PH					−0.031	−0.447	−0.021	−0.295
GS					0.017	0.256	0.01	0.142
Interactions (significant)
INT × CHANCE							−0.094 b	−1.533
INT × CRIT							−0.116 a	−1.716
ΔF	9.138 ***		27.102 ***		1.094		1.898 a
ΔR2	0.058		0.079		0.016		0.027

^a p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; ^b p < 0.126 is non-significant and just provides an indication for future research.

). Model 0 includes only the control variables, Model 1 inserts the independents, Model 2 the moderators and Model 3 is the full model with the interaction terms. For the economy of space only significant p < 0.05 (also the p < 0.1 level was included) coefficients for the interactions are reported. Multicollinearity issues were not observed since all variance inflation factors (VIFs) are well below 2 (acceptable threshold at 5) for the regressions of Table 2 and Table 3. Positive emotions exhibit significant influence on intentions (β = 0.483, p < 0.000) while negative emotions negatively impact intention but not significantly (β = −0.015, p < 0.765), thus verifying H1. Further, intention is a significant predictor of nascent entrepreneurial behaviors (β = 0.283, p < 0.000).

Hypotheses H2 and H3 assume BCD’s moderating effects on intentions and on nascent behaviors. In Table 2, the effect of emotional states on intentions is shown with BCD as moderator and in Table 3, the effect of intention on nascent behaviors. Moderating effects are observed by criticality of decision (CRIT) for negative emotions on intention (Table 2, β = 0.173, p < 0.003) and for intention on nascent behaviors (Table 3, β = −0.116, p < 0.087). The moderating effects are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 through simple slope analysis (Liao et al., 2022) and pertain to the amplifying effect of CRIT on negative emotions to intention and the diminishing effect of CRIT on intention to nascent behaviors.

Furthermore, a negative impact of chance, or fate, belief (CHANCE) on nascent behaviors is observed (β = −0.116, p < 0.087) with a potential negative moderation effect (Table 3, β = −0.094, p < 0.126) that remains insignificant in the present sample and needs further research. The negative influence of chance beliefs on the development of intention and further conversion to behavior is expected as in other career studies (Lease, 2004; Kotta et al., 2021). In sum, hypotheses H2 and H3 are partially verified for the criticality of decision belief.

5. Discussion

The present study underscores the high impact of emotional states on entrepreneurial intention (Karimi, 2020) and behavior (Cardon et al., 2012), while they may be the least studied source of self-efficacy. In addition, it confirms previous research findings in the career counseling context, which postulate that positive emotions uniquely contribute to the career decision-making process beyond negative emotions (or their absence) and thus support the intentional entrepreneurial behavior (Rigoni et al., 2015). It is noteworthy that the role of emotions in entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions follows the trend of integrating positive resources (such as hope, courage, resilience, etc.) in career development research (Owens et al., 2019). Consistent with this, the present findings show that positive emotions significantly enhance entrepreneurial intention (Table 1 and Table 2). Specifically, in contexts where individuals experience strong positive affect, entrepreneurial intention is notably elevated, indicating that positive emotions can serve as a motivational catalyst during the early stages of entrepreneurial engagement, particularly as intention is a key predictor of nascent behaviors. This is in line with M. D. Foo (2011), who found that positive emotions enhance opportunity evaluation and increase the likelihood of pursuing entrepreneurial ventures by shaping how risks and benefits are perceived.

Dysfunctional career beliefs are conceptualized in this study as a multi-dimensional construct, encompassing five cognitive domains identified by the Beliefs about Career Decisions (BCD) scale: role of chance, role of significant others, role of professional help, criticality of the decision, and gender stereotypes. All dimensions were included in the empirical analysis to explore their potential moderating effects on entrepreneurial intention and behavior. However, only “criticality of the decision” emerged as statistically significant in moderating the relationship between emotional states and entrepreneurial intention, as well as between intention and nascent entrepreneurial behavior. This empirical finding justifies the focused discussion on this specific belief, while acknowledging the theoretical relevance of the remaining dimensions. For example, the role of chance appears with a potential to be a moderator in future studies.

As discussed in the sequel, “criticality of decision” (a cognitive dysfunctional belief, Figure 2) moderates the impact of negative emotions on intention in a manner that suggests a paradoxical, yet functionally significant role within entrepreneurial intention formation. People with negative feelings toward entrepreneurship exhibit lower entrepreneurial intention when they do not perceive a career decision as highly critical. Else, the previous positive relationship tends to be reversed (Figure 1). This intriguing finding indicates that perceiving the entrepreneurial career decision as highly critical may trigger more intense cognitive engagement, causing individuals to process their negative emotions more deeply, which in turn leads to a more definitive decision regarding entrepreneurship. This finding confirms and extends the insights of previous research (Byrne & Shepherd, 2015; Crosina et al., 2024; Shepherd, 2004): emotional experiences alone do not determine learning outcomes. Rather, it is their interpretation, shaped by beliefs like “criticality of decision”, that influences whether entrepreneurs grow from failure or retreat from it.

In contrast, the diminishing effect of “criticality of decision” on the relationship between intention and nascent behaviors indicates a potential barrier to action under conditions of high decision criticality (Figure 3). People with high entrepreneurial intention proceed to nascent entrepreneurial behaviors insofar as they do not view their career choice as a once-in-a-lifetime decision. Otherwise, the previous positive relationship tends to mitigate. Although individuals may form strong intentions under negative emotions in high-stakes contexts, the perceived criticality of the decision can paradoxically inhibit follow-through, as high consequences often lead to hesitation, fear of failure, or overthinking -patterns reflected in the literature on intentions’ implementation and behavioral inhibition (Gollwitzer, 1999). From the previous results we conclude that selecting an entrepreneurial career appears to be a critical occupational decision as stated in the title of the present study. Such a “critical dimension” in entrepreneurial career decisions has been obscure in hitherto research in the field; thus we offer a new insight in our understanding of entrepreneurial intentions and their translation into behaviors.

By considering entrepreneurial intention as a way point rather than a destination, the real driver of action appears to be the entrepreneurial mindset, that is, the enduring patterns of thought and perception that shape how individuals interpret uncertainty, opportunity, and self-agency. Emotional states and dysfunctional career beliefs are not just background noise in this process; they are the filters through which reality is interpreted.

It is also remarkable that in the traditional career literature, “criticality of decision” appears as a “dysfunctional” thought that hinders career decision-making. In this study it partly appears as “functional” (Figure 2) once entrepreneurship is viewed as a “career”, suggesting further investigation into whether or not entrepreneurship can be viewed as a conventional career (Walmsley et al., 2022). Returning to Politis’ (2005) career paths, those with linear or expert career orientations, who prioritize stability, status advancement, or in-depth specialization, may be more constrained by “criticality of decision”. They could think that being an entrepreneur is too uncertain or risky. People with transitory or spiral orientations, on the other hand, are usually less constrained by these thoughts and are more inclined to view entrepreneurial shifts as chances for development and reinvention (Politis, 2005). Recognizing and acknowledging these different trajectories in tandem with dysfunctional career thoughts, may “demystify” the concept of an entrepreneurial career, allowing people to better connect their personal experiences and goals with entrepreneurial opportunities and overcome dysfunctional beliefs about becoming an entrepreneur.

From a mindset perspective, our findings reinforce that the intention–behavior link is contingent on more than capability or opportunity. It depends on the entrepreneur’s mental operating system (Kaffka & Krueger, 2018, 2023; Kuratko et al., 2021). Positive emotions can widen the perceived possibility space, while dysfunctional beliefs like criticality of decision can narrow it, even in those with strong intentions. Mindsets are not static; they evolve through iterative cycles of action, interpretation, and re-framing (Crosina et al., 2024). Targeted interventions that explicitly challenge maladaptive beliefs, normalize safe-to-fail experiences with relevant negative emotions (Figure 2), and teach cognitive re-framing strategies could shift this trajectory, increasing the likelihood that intention leads to sustained entrepreneurial engagement. Embedding such mindset-focused approaches in both educational and entrepreneurial ecosystems could enhance the practical impact of these findings (Crosina et al., 2024).

Finally, the present findings also stimulate research on other factors that may act as moderators in the intention–behavior link (e.g., role of chance, significant others, professional help, etc.). Simply put, the current study suggests that the overall emotional state, a source of self-efficacy, does indeed play a significant role in the process of entrepreneurial career decision-making and highlights fundamental avenues for future research. The integration of dysfunctional career beliefs into the context of entrepreneurship is a novel development that requires further exploration, as this type of belief is known to play an important role in career decisions in other contexts and populations. Therefore, dysfunctional career beliefs along with emotional states are components of an entrepreneurial mindset (Kuratko et al., 2021) and thus offer a possibility to better capture the formation of entrepreneurial intention and behavior.

6. Implications, Limitations and Further Research

The present study introduces theoretical and practical implications, suggesting that in order to effectively increase entrepreneurial intention, it is important to target the perceived emotions and potentially the dysfunctional career beliefs.

From the theoretical standpoint, the present findings recommend that only entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intention may not be adequate to assess the effectiveness of entrepreneurial teaching once entrepreneurship is not considered within a career framework (Kakouris et al., 2023). Career development is a more general and lifelong process that requires its own research perspectives and constructs to manifest itself, rather than immediate measurements of self-efficacy and intentions just after the completion of a course excluding the affective dimension (N. Krueger, 2020). If so, the cultivation of the entrepreneurial mindset should be enriched by career theories and concepts like dysfunctional career beliefs adopted here. “Criticality of decision” was proven in this research as a significant moderator that can be explored in further research in association with other career beliefs. Such research will lead to a re-conceptualization of the status and purpose of entrepreneurship education, in its many forms (Kakouris & Liargovas, 2021), which is an open issue in the relevant literature.

The findings also stimulate educational practice. Some active pedagogies in educational settings could (re)condition people’s beliefs and foster positive emotions toward entrepreneurial action. These have to be experiential and transformative (Kakouris & Morselli, 2020). Once positive emotions enhance entrepreneurial intention, we recommend designing experiential learning modules, such as successful mini-venture simulations, that are explicitly crafted to generate feelings of excitement and determination among participants. These modules should encourage active engagement, allowing learners to experience real-time problem-solving, face difficulties and receive immediate feedback, thereby strengthening their emotional connection to the entrepreneurial process and boosting motivation. Given the inhibitory role of “criticality of decision” on the intention–behavior transition, it is advisable to integrate teaching of effectuation principles into entrepreneurship education (Sarasvathy, 2001). These well-known principles help re-frame entrepreneurship as a series of small, manageable experiments with affordable resources rather than a single, high-stakes, lifelong venture, potentially reducing hesitation and fear. Regarding the influence of negative emotions, curriculum design should incorporate emotional intelligence training (Zampetakis et al., 2009) or Shepherd’s strategies (Shepherd, 2003) and cognitive re-framing exercises (or cycles of learning, Crosina et al. (2024) to assist students in processing fear and anxiety effectively, fostering resilience and adaptive coping strategies. Techniques such as mindfulness, stress management, and peer discussion groups can be included to create a supportive learning environment that normalizes emotional challenges and equips students with practical tools for emotional regulation.

Concurrently, career counseling techniques can supplement pedagogy, such as: making one’s own decisions about what is acceptable behavior, evaluating one’s own difficulties in making career decisions, or having the opportunity to reflect positively on the changes that are occurring in one’s life. Encompassing a career perspective in teaching, informing students about different career paths (Politis, 2005), and by addressing dysfunctional career thinking can lead individuals to restructure their perceptions of entrepreneurship, develop new skills, identify their entrepreneurial traits and interests and discover new options, by functioning as co-creators of their entrepreneurial career decisions. In the case of entrepreneurial careers, which are precarious and risky, being able to manage the emotions that surround the process of making a career decision can help individuals to form entrepreneurial intentions.

Nonetheless, it should be recognized that beliefs cannot be changed instantly. Even if individuals become aware of their dysfunctional beliefs, emotions or patterns of behavior, consistent reinforcement is required to change them. In addition, moral and ethical issues surrounding experiential education that involves critical incidents, draw attention to further understanding and defining the role and responsibility of counselors/educators (Dean et al., 2020). Any psychological intervention requires a personal request from the individual and specially trained educators or counselors. Reconditioning thinking takes time, so if we want future generations to be more entrepreneurial, it is time to start thinking about how to influence the critical parameters of their pathways.

These findings introduce certain useful implications for educational policy. As entrepreneurship policies envision increasing graduate entrepreneurship and empowering the next generation of entrepreneurs, formal teaching should be supported by career counseling. In order to discuss entrepreneurship as a career, educators may not be adequately equipped with counseling methods and techniques. Thus, educational policies are expected to reconsider the particularities of the discipline and anticipate including career counseling in entrepreneurship education.

The limitations of the present research should be acknowledged. Firstly, the use of a single-country partial sample restricts the generalizability of the findings to broader populations. Moreover, the reliance on an online survey may introduce bias due to the self-selection of participants with internet access and willingness to respond to web-based questionnaires. The high dropout rate of the present survey is indicative for future replications. Although the adopted scales for measuring emotional states and sources of self-efficacy demonstrates satisfactory internal consistency reliability, future research should employ more refined and specialized measurement instruments (Adebusuyi et al., 2022). In this way, low average variance extracted indices (less than 0.5 like the ones of intention and overall BCD) will be avoided. We note that BCD is a multidimensional construct (five sub-dimensions) and especially for “criticality of decision” sub-dimension, discussed here, AVE = 0.596. Additionally, the use of self-administered questionnaires and self-reported data may affect the validity of the results due to potential response biases. Finally, the cross-sectional design of the study limits the ability to infer causal relationships, which represents a significant constraint in understanding the dynamics of the variables over time.

Future research should address these limitations by using longitudinal designs to explore causal relationships and changes over time between emotions, career beliefs, and entrepreneurial intentions. Mixed-methods approaches could offer deeper insights into how emotional and cognitive factors interact in entrepreneurial decision-making. Expanding samples across diverse countries and economic contexts would improve the cultural validity of measurement tools and the generalizability of the present results. Additionally, examining psychological traits like resilience and motivation as moderators or mediators, as well as testing targeted interventions such as emotional intelligence training through experimental studies, would advance the present exploratory findings.

7. Conclusions

This study provides original insights into psychological factors shaping entrepreneurial intention, emphasizing the critical role of emotional states and dysfunctional career beliefs. Positive emotions were identified as key antecedents that not only foster entrepreneurial intention but also encourage entrepreneurial behavior. Conversely, the dysfunctional career belief of “criticality of the decision” was found to moderate the relationship between intention and behavior, as well as to influence how negative emotions affect the formation of entrepreneurial intention. These findings enrich understanding of how under-explored emotional and cognitive factors interact in the entrepreneurial decision-making process.

The contribution lies in highlighting the necessity of addressing both emotional components and dysfunctional beliefs to effectively nurture entrepreneurial mindsets. This has significant implications for entrepreneurship education and career counseling, suggesting that interventions should go beyond traditional knowledge transfer and actively engage with the psychological dimensions of entrepreneurship in the context of career. By incorporating experiential learning, emotional intelligence training, cognitive re-framing, and others, educational programs and counseling services can better equip individuals to navigate the uncertainties and emotional challenges inherent in entrepreneurial careers.

Ultimately, the research underscores the importance of a more holistic approach to fostering entrepreneurship, like the one that integrates emotional and cognitive support to enhance entrepreneurial intention and behavior. Such an approach promises to improve the effectiveness of educational initiatives and counseling practices, thereby contributing to increased rates of graduate entrepreneurship and economic development.