Investigating Teachers’ Changing Perceptions Towards MOOCs Through the Technology Acceptance Model

Abstract

While MOOCs have gained prominence in higher education, their role in fostering pedagogical and technological readiness among teachers remains underexplored. This study addresses this gap by leveraging the Technology Acceptance Model to investigate how MOOCs influence teachers’ digitally inclined attitudes and therefore professional growth. By employing a mixed-methods approach, the research explores how perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use influence participants’ behavioural intentions, the emergence and use of MOOCs in teacher education and learning practices from MOOCs. A total of (n = 144) primarily teachers, in their pre-service and in-service stage, completed the “Teaching Thinking” MOOC. Data collection involved pre- and post-course surveys, as well as open-ended questionnaires for a subset of participants. Quantitative findings revealed initial ambivalence toward MOOCs, with moderate Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use scores, tempered by concerns over time management and platform usability. Post-course analysis showed significant improvements in participants’ perceptions, highlighting increased acceptance and acknowledgment of MOOCs’ flexibility and access to diverse resources. Qualitative insights underscored key factors driving these shifts, including instructor support, peer interactions, and self-directed learning environment. Results suggest that MOOCs foster critical skills such as time management, problem-solving, and professional engagement while contributing to participants’ self-efficacy and readiness to integrate technology into teaching practices. Challenges identified include technical barriers, lack of personalised feedback, and initial reluctance to adopt online learning. This study underscores MOOCs’ transformative potential in teacher education, emphasising the importance of tailored course design, supportive learning environments, and strategic policy initiatives to enhance engagement and outcomes.

1. Introduction

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are designed to develop leaners’ ability to contribute to, and learn from, the digital network. Although there is growing interest in MOOCs involving teachers, its emergence and use in teacher education needs to be explored better. The aim underlying this research study is to explore the effects of MOOCs at different stages during teacher education. There are several theories that provide valuable frameworks for understanding and predicting user behaviour towards technology such as the Diffusion of Innovation (Rogers, 1962), and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003). However, by focusing on the core perceptions of usefulness and ease of use, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) provides a clear, concise, framework for studying how learners’ views of MOOCs evolve. This simplicity is a major asset when the goal is to understand the dynamics of changing perceptions in a complex and evolving educational context. Ultimately, this makes it suitable to recognise, analyse and interpret the nature underlying perceptual and attitudinal self-efficacy shifts towards employed digital technologies.

Essentially, self-efficacy directly shapes the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) constructs. We believe that teachers with higher confidence in their technological abilities tend to perceive platforms as easier to use (PEoU), which in turn strengthens their belief in the technology’s usefulness (PU). This interaction highlights how self-efficacy underpins the attitudinal shifts captured by TAM, thereby justifying the combined focus of this study (Ortiz-López et al., 2024).

Changes in self-efficacy and perceptions towards technology complement each other and, understanding the relationship between self-efficacy and perceptions towards technology has important implications for educators, trainers, and policymakers (Pan, 2020). Teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to believe they can successfully use technology in their classrooms (Joo et al., 2018). They feel confident in their ability to learn and overcome challenges (Holden & Rada, 2011). Therefore, by fostering positive experiences with technology and providing adequate support through use, it is possible to encourage positive attitudes towards technology, leading to greater adoption and effective use of technology in various contexts. Because of the impact of these positive attitudes, in this study we employ the TAM as our theoretical lens considered to be instrumental in helping us explore teachers’ changing perceptions towards MOOCs for learning. By understanding the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy and their perceptions of technology, strategies to support teachers in developing the skills and confidence they need to use technology effectively in the classroom can be designed and implemented.

Our focus on teacher perceptual and attitudinal change stems from the fact that it provides important information dealing with teacher quality and sustainability. A meta-analysis by Wang and Zhao (2021) found that teachers with higher self-efficacy were more likely to integrate technology within their teaching practices. Many educators, policymakers and scholars have been putting efforts for improving the teaching force, and one can note an increasing emphasis on the need of more rigorous standards and accountability for teachers. Moreover, teachers’ work is regarded as pivotal both in their contribution to teaching and learning within schools, and in their role of providing a well-qualified labour force to drive forward the country’s position in the global economy (Datnow, 2020). One way of rendering teachers’ work more effective is through teacher education and professional learning. Indeed, a recurrent theme of education policy is the importance of high-quality teachers (Sancar et al., 2021) and teacher-professional learning is a key feature of school improvement strategies, largely perceived as a reform implementation tool (Attard et al., 2021). Professional learning can be considered a means of reshaping and enhancing professional practice. In context of the aforesaid, the present study is therefore directed to study and interpret any arising attitudinal changes towards using MOOCs that the participants may have developed after experiencing learning from the mentioned educational digital platform.

1.1. Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is defined as individuals’ beliefs and judgments of their capabilities (Bandura, 1997). A teacher’s judgement of how much he or she can do affects learning (Ross, 1998). Self-efficacy can therefore play a crucial role in shaping individuals’ perceptions of technology, particularly regarding its usefulness and ease of use (Xu et al., 2024). It also directly influences the underlying intention to use technology and the manifested behaviour towards the technology in context. Subsequently understanding the relationship between self-efficacy and technology acceptance can help designers create technologies that are more likely to be adopted and used effectively. Thus, within TAM, self-efficacy can be seen as a precursor to Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU) where the confidence in handling technology reduces perceived difficulty (Schubatzky et al., 2025). At the same time, higher self-efficacy enhances Perceived Usefulness (PU), as teachers anticipate that technology will support their instructional goals. Self-efficacy therefore acts as a foundation upon which TAM variables are constructed.

MOOCs represent a relatively modern approach to education that leverages digital technology to provide readily accessible learning opportunities to a global audience. These courses differ from conventional online education by typically offering unrestricted enrolment without charging registration fees or keeping them very low (Watted, 2023; Watted & Barak, 2024; Zhu & Phan, 2020; Zhu et al., 2020). The appeal of MOOCs lies in their numerous advantages. They offer learners the flexibility to study at their own pace, present a cost-effective alternative to traditional education, and allow individuals to tailor their learning experience to their personal schedules. Such features are particularly attractive to aspiring educators, who often grapple with limited time and financial resources (Kazmi & Syedah, 2023; Watted, 2023). Furthermore, MOOCs create a platform for international dialogue and cooperation, enabling the exchange of diverse cultural perspectives and educational practices (Watted & Barak, 2018).

Research by Gómez-Galán et al. (2020) indicates that pre-service teachers recognise the value of MOOCs as instructional paradigms, appreciating their accessibility, cost-efficiency, and adaptability. Then again while on one side Moore (1989) portrays three main kinds of interaction in MOOCs that include the enhancement of: (1) learner-content, (2) learner-learner and (3) learner–instructor interaction, Gómez-Galán et al. (2020) argue that simple interaction would not ensure student engagement and cognitive presence. As a matter of fact, the study by Gómez-Galán et al. (2020) with MOOCs also highlights several challenges associated with these courses. Participants within their courses noted issues such as insufficient individualised guidance, course content that fails to engage learners effectively, and learning assessments that lack depth. Interestingly, these identified problems primarily stem from pedagogical considerations rather than technological shortcomings.

In context, the study presented here is therefore directed to evaluate any manifested changing attitudes users availing themselves of a particularly set MOOC may have acquired. This was done by comparing their perceptions towards learning via a MOOC environment, before and after using it. In order to individualise and define the personal traits towards MOOCs that might have invariably changed through the experience and insights gained through use, the TAM, as a theoretical lens, was employed and directed towards defining and gaining further insights into changes in attitudes and motivations for the technology in question. Therefore, the elucidation and the comparison of the initial and final perceptual snapshots separated by time led to the application of the TAM. Subsequently its subdomain variables, as will be explained, provided insights into the underlying processes that clarified any differences in perceptions and attitudinal changes over time.

1.2. The Technology Acceptance Model

The TAM has emerged as an important theoretical framework in understanding how individuals adopt and interact with technology (Sánchez-Prieto et al., 2020). Being a comprehensive information technology paradigm, the TAM offers crucial insights into the psychological and behavioural factors that drive users’ acceptance and intended use of technological innovations (Stephen & Ritzhaupt, 2023). Building on this foundation, Venkatesh and Davis (2000) demonstrate the TAM’s practical value in implementing technological systems successfully. On the other hand, Scherer and Teo (2019) emphasise its power in revealing how users’ direct experiences shape their perceptions and subsequent acceptance or rejection of a used technology.

The model’s enduring influence stems from its ability to systematically decode the digitally inclined human-instigated qualities that either facilitate or hinder technology adoption. This inherently makes it an invaluable tool for both researchers and practitioners seeking to understand and improve technology integration across various contexts. The validation across numerous studies has established its reliability in capturing both explicit user motivations and implicit attitudes towards technology (Granić & Marangunić, 2019; Scherer & Teo, 2019). Thus, this extensive validation makes TAM particularly appreciated as an analytical framework for investigating peoples’ attitudes towards technology. Furthermore, TAM’s evolution into the predominant framework for analysing technology adoption patterns (Granić & Marangunić, 2019) reflects its unique capacity to enlighten and clarify the complex interplay between user perceptions, behavioural intentions, and actual technology practice.

Linking TAM with self-efficacy allows for a more comprehensive analysis. While TAM explains how perceptions evolve into behavioural intentions and actual use, self-efficacy explains why individuals develop such perceptions in the first place. Together, they offer a robust framework for understanding teacher engagement with MOOCs. When it comes to MOOCs, several studies have successfully employed TAM to explain learners’ and teachers’ adoption of these platforms. For example, Alraimi et al. (2015) applied TAM to investigate factors influencing learners’ continued intention to use MOOCs, showing the importance of perceived usefulness in sustaining engagement. Escobar-Rodriguez and Monge-Lozano (2012) also used TAM to examine adoption through Moodle platforms, which directly informs the MOOC context.

Moreover, TAM has also been widely applied to teacher populations. Teo (2009), for instance, adapted TAM to study pre-service teachers’ acceptance of technology in Singapore, while Sánchez-Prieto et al. (2016) examined Spanish pre-service teachers’ mobile learning acceptance through TAM. These studies highlight the suitability of TAM as a framework to investigate teacher attitudes, which justifies its application in the present study.

As expressed in Figure 1 below (Granić & Marangunić, 2019), the TAM identifies two primary determinants that motivate an individual’s intention to engage with the technology in question. These include: the Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU) and the Perceived Usefulness (PU) (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). Eventually, and as demonstrated through research, these two perceptual factors shape users’ attitudes and beliefs, which in turn determine their Behavioural Intention (BI) and the eventual Actual Use (AU) of the technological system in consideration (Sánchez-Prieto et al., 2020). These four fundamental variables are explained as follows:

• Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU): reflects users’ subjective assessment of how intuitive and manageable a technology is to operate. It encompasses their self-confidence in mastering the technology without encountering significant obstacles or complications.
• Perceived Usefulness (PU): evaluates users’ beliefs about the technology’s potential to improve their performance or capabilities. It therefore quantifies the degree of usability that users envisage in respect to the technology in question and consequently their belief to how it will effectively enhance what they do. It will serve as a key indicator of users’ willingness to embrace, adopt and adapt to the technology in question.
• Behavioural Intention (BI): emerges as the outcome from the combined effects of the PEoU and PU. As users weigh both the ease of use and potential benefits, their behavioural intentions take shape, either encouraging or discouraging technology adoption. These intentions act as a crucial bridge between perceptions and actual usage.
• Actual Use: is manifested as the observable outcome and the final stage with respect to the technology in question. It manifests itself in the form of concrete behaviours and measurable patterns of technology utilisation. Thus, the observable outcomes will demonstrate how users’ initial perceptions and intentions translate into practical engagement with the technology, reflecting their developed attitudes toward its implementation.

1.3. Research Goals and Questions

The aim of this study is to investigate pre-service teachers’ perceptions of MOOCs. The study focuses on the perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEoU) before and after their engagement with the platform, therefore assessing any attitudinal change towards the technology in question from experiential use. Grounded in the TAM, the study examines how these perceptions evolve throughout the learning experience and how MOOCs influenced participants’ attitudes, behavioural intentions (BI), and learning practices. Additionally, the study seeks to understand participants’ utilisation of MOOCs in the context of personal and professional growth, identifying the factors that contributed to attitudinal shifts and skill development.

The following research questions guide the study:

• How did participants perceive the usefulness and ease of use of MOOCs for their learning and professional growth prior to their engagement with the platform?
• How did the learning experience involving MOOCs affect the participants’ utilisation of the platform?

By addressing these questions, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the transformative role of MOOCs in fostering participants’ self-efficacy, professional development, and readiness to embrace online learning environment. Specifically, this study therefore examines how changes in self-efficacy influence TAM variables, that is PU, PEoU, BI, and AU, thereby clarifying the mechanism through which MOOCs shape teachers’ acceptance and sustained use of digital technologies.

2. Materials and Methods

The employed research study adopts a mixed methods research design, a methodology that strategically combines both quantitative and qualitative research approaches within a single investigation (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). By combining these two complementary research methods, the study aims to achieve a more comprehensive, holistic, and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This methodological framework is therefore deemed appropriate for examining this research endeavour as it offers a multifaceted perspective, enabling a comprehensive assessment of participants’ perceptions towards MOOCs. While through the employment of the quantitative analysis, the study delves into the numerical data, providing an overview of the participants’ general attitudes and opinions, the qualitative component allows for a nuanced exploration of individual perspectives. These qualitative insights provoke rich, contextualised data, revealing the intricate details of participants’ experiences, challenges, and successes within the MOOC environment giving further meaning quantitative data obtained. This synergistic approach facilitates the rigour underlying quantitative methods with the depth of qualitative inquiry, provoking an effective strategy for investigating the complex and multifaceted nature of participants’ perceptions towards MOOCs.

2.1. Research Participants

The study includes (n = 144) pre-service and in-service teachers who completed a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) entitled “Teaching Thinking.” A total of 210 students initially registered for the MOOC, but only 144 persisted through to completion and were therefore included in the analysis. Participants were drawn from diverse educational and demographic backgrounds, providing a rich dataset for exploring perceptions and experiences with MOOCs. Most of the participants (79%) were Israelis, with the remaining (21%) residing in Malta. The participant group was predominantly female, comprising 92% of the total, while males accounted for (8%). The age distribution revealed that the majority (80%) of the participants were between 18 and 26 years old. A smaller proportion (13%) fell within the 27–35 age range, and (7%) were aged 36 and above. About (46%) were pursuing their first degree, (37%) were enrolled in second-degree programmes, (10%) were engaged in professional development, and (7%) participated as part of their lifelong learning initiatives. The distribution of majors of the pre-service teachers was as follows: (55%) in languages, (15%) in mathematics education, (12%) in science education, (10%) in early childhood education, and (8%) in vocational subjects. Regarding teaching experience, (71%) of the participants identified as students without teaching seniority. Among the remaining participants, (8%) had 1–4 years of teaching experience, (12%) had 5–9 years, and 9% had over 10 years of seniority.

Participants reported varied motivations for enrolling in the “Teaching Thinking” MOOC. The majority (62%) cited professional development and improving their work as the primary reasons. Other motivations included interest in the subject (12%), gaining academic points (5%), and enhancing communication with peers who share similar interests (21%).

Additionally, participants highlighted several factors that could enhance their motivation to enrol in MOOCs. Recommendations from colleagues or professors were cited by (37%) as a significant motivator, followed by a clearer understanding of MOOC benefits and challenges (33%). Availability of relevant courses was important for (12%), while recognition or credit for MOOC completion and reduced time commitment were noted by (10%) and (8%) of participants, respectively.

Awareness of MOOCs varied within the population, with (67%) indicating they had not heard of MOOCs prior to the study, while 33% were familiar with the concept. Similarly, only (21%) of the participants had previously enrolled in a MOOC, whereas (79%) had not. The primary sources of information about MOOCs included online resources (43%), colleagues (41%), professional development sessions (8%), and other sources (8%).

2.2. Research Tools and Data Analysis

To delve deeper into the participants’ perceptions of MOOCs, as a potential tool for remote learning, a quantitative research approach was first employed. In this case, questionnaires were distributed to the research participants coming from Malta and Israel, accepting to participate in the research while following the course. Prior to providing the questionnaires, the research initiative accompanying the MOOCs was explained. The participants’ written and signed consent was requested with the provision that results would be anonymous. Also, up till finalising the research report, the participants were informed that if requested they could have their response revoked from the research.

The quantitative data were collected through two structured questionnaires administered before and after the MOOC experience. The questionnaires were adapted from the TAM developed by Davis (1989). Items were selected and modified to reflect the context of MOOCs in teacher education. Both questionnaires used a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”).

The pre-questionnaire was designed to capture participants’ initial perceptions of MOOCs prior to engaging with the course. It consisted of two parts:

Part 1: Demographic data and basic information: Place of residence, gender, age, level of education, academic field, teaching experience, motivations for enrolling awareness and familiarity with MOOCs

Part 2: It included three scales as expressed through TAM (Davis, 1989) focusing on:

• Perceived Usefulness (PU): Six items assessed participants’ beliefs about the potential value of MOOCs for learning and professional development. Items addressed aspects such as the flexibility of MOOCs, their contribution to staying updated with educational trends, access to experts and diverse courses, and concerns about recognition by employers and quality compared to traditional learning. This scale demonstrated high reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.832).
• Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU): Five items measured participants’ expectations regarding the usability and accessibility of MOOCs. Items included both advantages (e.g., the ability to learn at one’s own pace, ease of navigation) and concerns (e.g., self-discipline, lack of interaction, time commitment). The reliability of this scale was moderate (Cronbach’s α = 0.620).

The post-questionnaire was administered after participants completed the MOOC and was designed to assess changes in perceptions as well as future intentions to use MOOCs. It included three scales:

• Perceived Usefulness (PU): Expanded to eight items, this scale assessed participants’ reflections on the value of MOOCs after completion. In addition to the dimensions included in the pre-questionnaire, new items addressed the ability of MOOCs to connect participants to a global learning community, to enhance student motivation, and to provide access to high-quality education. The scale demonstrated strong reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.860).
• Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU): Three items examined participants’ evaluations of usability after the learning experience. Items emphasised the flexibility of self-paced learning, ease of use, and the potential of MOOCs to incorporate innovative teaching strategies. The scale showed acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.680).
• Behavioural Intention (BI): Four items measured participants’ intention to integrate MOOCs into their future teaching practice. These included overall impressions of MOOCs, consideration of MOOCs as tools to enhance classroom instruction, and the intention to rely on MOOCs as a primary teaching medium. While conceptually aligned with the TAM framework, this scale demonstrated lower internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.560), and the results should therefore be interpreted with caution.

The Content validity of the pre- and post-questionnaires was established in two stages. First, items were drawn from validated TAM-based questionnaires reported in the literature (Davis, 1989), ensuring strong alignment with the constructs of Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU), and Behavioural Intention (BI). Secondly, the adapted items were reviewed by three experts in educational technology and teacher education, who evaluated clarity, relevance, and appropriateness for pre-service and in-service teacher populations. Based on their feedback, several items were refined to enhance contextual accuracy. The Construct validity was supported by the theoretical structure of TAM. PU items consistently reflected beliefs about the value of MOOCs for professional growth and learning, PEoU items captured usability and accessibility, and BI items assessed intention to adopt MOOCs in future teaching practice. The strong theoretical coherence between items and constructs provides further evidence of validity.

By collecting and analysing quantitative data from these questionnaires, a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ initial, evolving and final perceptions of MOOCs and their potential to enhance the educational experience was attained. To give deeper meaning to the quantitative outcomes regarding participants’ perceptions towards the platform a qualitative research approach through open-ended questions was employed. Thirteen (13) participants were randomly chosen and pseudonyms were used for the respondents. The protocol for these questions was therefore designed to enhance the outcomes from the quantitative exercise, eliciting detailed information on a variety of nascent key themes as designated through the TAM including:

• Perceived usefulness and ease of use: Here the participants were asked to elaborate if they were initially instigated by their institute of someone to use the MOOC or if it was something personally inherent. Moreover, they were tested on their perceptions towards the validity and usefulness of the MOOC including perceived potential advantages or its perceived usefulness, such as flexibility, accessibility, networking and if opportunities for professional development were enhanced through experiential use and self-efficacy.
• Challenges and barriers: This explored participants’ impressions underlying potential obstacles to the adoption of MOOCs, including technical difficulties, time constraints, and concerns about the quality of online education.
• Participants’ perspectives and behavioural intentions: The open-ended questions sought to understand the participants’ perceptions of how they might benefit from MOOCs, including improved engagement and motivation to use it again.

Thus, by examining participants’ changing perceptions and feelings towards the MOOC employed, the qualitative questions provided further understanding of participants’ changing sense of self-efficacy through use, in the process highlighting potential challenges and opportunities for future MOOC implementation.

The Quantitative data was statistically analysed by IBM Statistical Program for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 22.0. The qualitative data collected from the open-ended question was analysed using the conventional content analysis approach, in which coding categories and themes were derived inductively from the raw data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

3. Results

3.1. Perceived Usefulness and Ease of Use of MOOCs

The analysis of the participants’ initial perceptions of MOOCs, as yielded from the questionnaire, revealed a generally moderate level of agreement regarding their usefulness and ease of use (

Table 1. Descriptive statistics Perceived usefulness of MOOCS and Perceived ease of use before taking a MOOC (n = 144).

	Mean	SD	Median	Skewness	Range
Perceived usefulness of MOOCs
I believe MOOCs can provide valuable learning experiences.	3.52	1.21	4	−0.62	1–5
MOOCs offer a flexible and convenient way to learn new skills and knowledge.	3.51	1.11	4	−0.61	1–5
MOOCs can help me stay up to date with the latest educational trends and practices	3.66	1.13	4	−0.56	1–5
MOOCs can provide me with access to a wider range of courses and experts than traditional classroom settings	3.69	1.10	4	−0.66	1–5
I am not sure if MOOCs will be recognised or valued by my future employers or professional organisations.	2.51	1.11	3	−0.02	1–5
I am concerned about the quality and rigour of MOOCs compared to traditional classroom instruction.	2.68	1.00	3.00	−0.16	1–5
Perceived ease of use
I am not sure if I have the self-discipline and motivation to succeed in a MOOC environment.	2.32	1.30	2	−0.372	1–5
I am worried about the lack of interaction and personalised feedback in MOOCs	2.41	1.00	3	−0.08	1–5
I am concerned about the time commitment required to complete a MOOC	2.58	1.10	3	−0.09	1–5
A MOOC will allow me to work at my own pace independent of where I am and at what time I will access it	3.36	1.15	3	−0.36	1–5
A MOOC is easy to use	3.18	1.11	3	−0.32	1–5

).

Table 1 shows that participants recognised MOOCs as valuable tools for learning and professional growth (Mean = 3.52, SD = 1.21), emphasising their potential to provide flexible and convenient access to new skills and knowledge (Mean = 3.51, SD = 1.11) and a broader range of courses and experts compared to traditional settings (Mean = 3.69, SD = 1.10). MOOCs were also perceived as tools to help them stay updated with the latest educational trends (Mean = 3.66, SD = 1.13). However, concerns were raised about the formal recognition of MOOCs by employers and professional organisations (Mean = 2.51, SD = 1.11) and the quality and rigour of MOOCs relative to traditional instruction (Mean = 2.68, SD = 1.00).

The participants expressed mixed perceptions regarding the ease of use of MOOCs before engaging with the platform. While many found MOOCs relatively easy to use (Mean = 3.18, SD = 1.11), concerns were raised about the time commitment required to complete a course (Mean = 2.58, SD = 1.10). This highlights a tension between the simplicity of the platform and the challenges of managing time effectively within a MOOC environment. A positive aspect of MOOCs’ ease of use was their flexibility, as participants appreciated the ability to work at their own pace, regardless of location or time constraints (Mean = 3.36, SD = 1.15). However, these advantages were counterbalanced by concerns over self-discipline and motivation, which were rated relatively low (Mean = 2.32, SD = 1.30). This suggests that while the platform itself may be intuitive, the self-directed nature of the learning process can be a barrier for some learners.

The open-ended questions explored into more depth the following focal areas:

• Forced vs. self-initiated;
• Skill enhancement;
• Personal growth;
• Community engagement.

Participants who were initially forced to enrol in the MOOC often developed a positive perception of its usefulness over time, recognising its flexibility and the value of the community of practice. Thus, regardless of their initial motivation (forced enrolment or self-driven), they consistently recognised the MOOC as a valuable tool for skill enhancement:

“I didn’t choose to take this MOOC course, it was part of the academic year enrolment, but it ended up being an important element of my academic route. The assignments were interesting.”.

(Layan)

The MOOC was also seen by the participants as a tool for enhancing skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and time management. For instance, a participant, Hams, decided to join through personal instigated initiatives and discerned forward personal development, as articulated here:

“I started this MOOC because I wanted to improve my thinking skills and learn new ways to tackle problems.”.

(Hams)

The participants valued the opportunity for personal growth and development, both academically and professionally. The MOOC was perceived as a platform for personal development, fostering a shift from initial extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation driven by a desire to learn, grow, and achieve personal goals:

“As the course progressed […]. Challenges and assignments sparked a greater enthusiasm for problem-solving and applying theoretical concepts in practical scenarios.”

(Taseem)

Moreover, the interactive nature of the MOOC, including discussions and collaborative activities, fostered a sense of community and enhanced learning. The participants recognised the value of the community of practice and interacting with other students from different cultures, leading to intrinsic motivation:

“I also practised the language with my Maltese colleagues when we were divided into rooms during Zoom …”.

(Marwa)

“I received substantial support from the course community, including peers who engaged in discussions and offered assistance.”

(Haya)

3.2. The Effect of the Learning Experience Involving MOOCs on Participants’ Utilisation

The data, derived from post-survey responses, explore participants’ perceptions of MOOCs in terms of behavioural intention, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use as presented in

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for Behavioural Intention, Perceived usefulness of MOOCS, Perceived ease of use (n = 75) after completing A MOOC.

	Mean	SD	Median	Skewness	Range
Behavioural intention
What is your overall impression upon using a MOOC?	3.87	1.22	4	−1.11	1–5
How much do you consider using a MOOC as a means of enhancing what you already do or can do in class?	3.67	1.26	4	−0.68	1–5
How much do you plan in teaching something by SOLELY making use of a MOOC?	3.55	1.27	4	−0.48	1–5
I am (How much do you) concerned about the quality and rigour of MOOCs compared to traditional classroom instruction.	2.99	1.30	3	−0.13	1–5
Perceived usefulness of MOOCS
Do you agree that a MOOC can offer a valuable learning experience?	3.92	1.24	4	−0.89	1–5
How much do you agree that MOOCs can offer a convenient way for educators to acquire new skills and knowledge?	3.89	1.24	4	−1.00	1–5
Do you agree that MOOCs can help you stay up to date with the latest educational trends and practices?	3.72	1.30	4	−0.82	1–5
Do you agree that MOOCs can provide you with access to a wider range of courses and experts than traditional classroom settings?	3.87	1.27	4	−0.99	1–5
Do you agree that MOOCs can help student teachers connect with a global community of educators and learners?	3.72	1.21	4	−0.74	1–5
How effective do you think MOOCs are for providing access to high-quality education?	3.76	1.22	4	−0.86	1–5
I am concerned about the lack of interaction and personalized feedback in MOOCs.	2.88	1.28	3	−0.11	1–5
MOOCs can enhance student engagement and motivation to learn.	3.69	1.30	4	−0.55	1–5
Perceived ease of use
A MOOC allows me to work at my own independent pace.	3.72	1.26	4	−0.75	1–5
A MOOC is easy to use.	3.71	1.27	4	−0.68	1–5
A MOOC allows me to incorporate new teaching strategies or techniques within classroom instruction.	3.71	1.27	4	−0.80	1–5

.

Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the descriptive statistics for behavioural intention (BI), perceived usefulness (PU), and perceived ease of use (PEU) after participants completed a MOOC. These constructs were measured using a 5-point Likert scale. Participants expressed moderately positive behavioural intentions toward using MOOCs. For example: The statement “What is your overall impression upon using a MOOC?” received the highest mean score (M = 3.87, SD = 1.22), indicating a generally favourable impression. However, concerns about the quality and rigour of MOOCs compared to traditional classroom instruction received the lowest mean score (M = 2.99, SD = 1.30), reflecting ambivalence. The perceived usefulness of MOOCs was generally rated positively: Participants agreed that MOOCs offer valuable learning experiences (M = 3.92, SD = 1.24) and provide access to a wide range of experts and courses (M = 3.87, SD = 1.27). Concerns about the lack of interaction and personalised feedback scored lower (M = 2.88, SD = 1.28), suggesting this may be a barrier to their perceived value.

Ease of use was also positively rated: Participants noted that MOOCs allowed them to work independently (M = 3.72, SD = 1.26) and were generally easy to use (M = 3.71, SD = 1.27). These findings highlight the user-friendly design of MOOCs and their potential for integrating new teaching strategies (M = 3.71, SD = 1.27).

The technological challenges that some participants experienced were also communicated through the open-ended questions. They initially struggled with the technological aspects of the MOOC, such as navigating the platform and using specific tools. They seemingly encountered initial challenges due to disorganisation and perceived lack of clarity within the course structure, suggesting potential issues with the user interface or navigation such as unclear instructions, confusing layouts, or difficulties in accessing course materials. Then again, these same tools enabled them to enhance their awareness learn new skills. They recognised the importance of technological skills and literacy for successful navigation and engagement with the MOOC. The data also suggested that the platform itself may have required a certain level of technological proficiency for optimal learning:

“The presenter used a foreign language, and the transcription’s translation of her words was not clear. I would watch the video, read the transcription once more, respond to the questions, write the conclusion, and add it to the Padlet.”

(Layan)

Moreover, balancing the demands of the MOOC with other commitments was a common challenge. Participants recognised the importance of effective time management for successful navigation and engagement with the MOOC. The flexibility of the platform, while beneficial, also presented challenges in terms of self-discipline and time allocation. Thus, as expressed they needed to develop strategies for managing their time effectively, setting realistic goals, and adhering to study schedules:

“… when work got hectic, time management was an issue. … I took a structured approach to address these problems, including allocating certain hours each week for the course and segmenting larger tasks into smaller parts.”

(Nirmen)

The proactive time management approach that the participants adopted was considered crucial for navigating the flexible learning environment. It not only ensured progress but also reduced stress and increased overall satisfaction with the learning experience:

“I found out how to organize my time better and how to approach problems without quitting.”

(Donna)

The qualitative data also showed that the presence of a supportive instructor played a crucial role in enhancing the PEoU, providing guidance and encouragement. Clear instructions, timely feedback, and accessible support mechanisms enhanced the learning experience invariably reducing any self-instilled frustration. The rapport built with the instructors instilled confidence and motivated students in navigating within new experiential spaces so important in aiding the participants achieve new and higher boundaries:

“Our lecturer, Dr Watted, was personable and compassionate when we had issues. She assisted us by offering guidance and agreeing to requests for postponements of project deadlines.”

(Layan)

Participants’ belief in their ability to successfully complete the course was a key factor in overcoming challenges and improving their PEoU. This highlights the importance of self-efficacy: the belief in one’s ability to successfully complete the course and achieve learning goals (Holden & Rada, 2011). Factors such as clear instructions, timely feedback, and a supportive learning environment ultimately contributed to increased self-efficacy and enhanced PEoU:

“The role of critical thinking in professional development, motivated me to participate in this MOOC programme. I wanted to strengthen my knowledge and improve my skills in this field.”

(Nirman)

As participants engaged in their respective MOOCs, it became evident that their experiences were characterised by significant changes in perceptions of usefulness (PU) and ease of use (PEoU), which ultimately led to shifts in attitudes and behavioural intentions (BI) towards online learning. This transformation was not merely about course completion. It represented a profound journey of self-discovery, skill acquisition, and professional growth fostered through active engagement with the learning community.

The MOOC encouraged the adoption of new learning strategies, including active learning, self-directed learning, and collaborative learning. Participants explored different learning techniques, such as active recall, spaced repetition, and the use of mind maps, to enhance their understanding and retention of the course material. The ability to adapt and experiment with various learning strategies demonstrated a proactive and engaged approach to online learning. Moreover, the flexibility of the MOOC environment encouraged participants to personalise their learning journey, tailoring their study approach to their individual learning styles and preferences:

“I also learned new skills which I intend to use in my career to boost on my performance and productivity.”

(Donna)

The cultivation of critical skills, such as problem-solving, communication, and time management, equipped the participants with valuable transferable skills applicable in diverse professional settings. Furthermore, the successful completion of the MOOC provided participants with a sense of accomplishment and boosted their confidence in their ability to learn independently and adapt to new challenges in the workplace. The positive learning experience fostered a growth mindset and inspired participants to continue exploring online learning opportunities for professional and personal enrichment:

“Completing this MOOC has had a big impact on me, both personally and professionally. I’ve learned a lot about critical thinking and problem-solving. The course has shown me the value of lifelong learning and staying open to different viewpoints. It’s also helped me appreciate the process of continuous self-improvement.”

(Hams)

It is interesting to note that participants generally experienced positive shifts in their attitudes towards online learning, recognising its flexibility and accessibility. The initial reluctance and external pressure experienced by many participants gradually transformed into a positive engagement with the MOOC. The initial challenges faced by some participants, such as disorganisation and lack of clarity, ultimately served as catalysts for personal and attitudinal growth. Participants’ attitudes towards online learning evolved from apprehension to appreciation, recognising the value of technology as a powerful tool for learning, communication, and collaboration:

“The course offers a flexible and comprehensive learning experience that is well-suited to individuals looking to expand their knowledge and skills. The quality of the content, coupled with the support from the course community, makes it a valuable learning opportunity.”

(Muhammed)

The successful completion of the MOOC boosted participants’ confidence in their ability to learn independently and acquire new skills. The supportive learning environment fostered a sense of self-efficacy, leading participants to embrace MOOCs not just as a means of academic completion, but as a pathway towards professional development:

“All in all, I suppose I would consider my learning experience in this MOOC extremely positive … I found the best fun when I was able to apply what was being taught in the classroom on projects that were more real life.”

(Donna)

They also developed a greater appreciation for technology as a tool for learning and communication, appreciating the logistical advantages inherent in the MOOC format, such as the flexibility of learning at their own pace and the opportunity to engage with peers from different backgrounds. The use of collaborative platforms and interactive elements enhanced the learning experience and fostered a greater appreciation for technology as a tool for learning and communication. Participants therefore grew to recognise the value of technology in facilitating learning, communication, and collaboration, leading to a positive shift in their attitudes towards its use:

“In the different activities of this course, I acquired the following technological skills; use of online collaborative tools including Google Docs.”

(Donna)

A lifelong learning mindset is observed to have been fostered in many participants, as they recognised the value of MOOCs in expanding their knowledge base, acquiring new skills, and staying informed within their field of study:

“I found my journey throughout this MOOC course rewarding. […] The knowledge acquired from undertaking this study will be very useful for my future undertakings in education …”

(Aomnia)

Figure 2 presents MOOCs’ influence on the (PU), (PEoU), and (BI) and the factors that contribute to attitudinal shifts and professional growth.

Finally, the study primarily relied on descriptive statistics and reliability testing to capture changes in participants’ perceptions across time. This approach was sufficient for addressing the research questions and provided a clear picture of overall trends within the sample. Nonetheless, the inclusion of qualitative analysis of participants’ responses to open-ended questions strengthens the findings by offering richer detail and triangulation, providing context and meaning to the trends identified in the descriptive statistics.

4. Discussion

The research objectives, grounded in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), were directed to elucidate and therefore understand any factors influencing participants’ changing attitudes and behaviours towards MOOCs whilst availing themselves of the platform, working and learning remotely. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into pre-service and in-service teachers’ perceptions when actively engaging with MOOCs. The analysis also revealed a nuanced picture, highlighting both the potential and challenges of MOOCs in the context of teacher education. Primarily, perceived usefulness and ease of use were found to be significant predictors of participants’ intentions to use and actual use of the MOOCs. However, the study also highlights the importance of contextual factors, such as personal motivations, technological readiness, and the quality of the learning experience, in shaping attitudes and behaviours that invariably surfaced through the qualitative analysis. We find that these findings resonate with previously written research that emphasise the multifaceted nature of technology adoption and the importance of considering individual, social, and contextual factors (Kazmi & Syedah, 2023; Misra, 2018).

4.1. Perceived Behaviour vs. Experiences

When it comes to considering the participants’ inherent perceptions prior to engaging with the MOOCs, they demonstrated a generally positive outlook. Perceived usefulness was high, with participants anticipating that MOOCs would enhance their pedagogical knowledge and skills. Similarly, the perceived ease of use was positive, suggesting that from gained experience after use the participants believed the platform was both user-friendly and accessible. These perceptions can be compared with the gained learning experience through utilisation which significantly shaped participants’ engagement. While the initial enthusiasm was high, several factors influenced their application patterns. For instance, issues around time constraints emerged as a major challenge, with many participants struggling to balance MOOC activities with their academic and personal commitments. Arising technical difficulties, such as internet connectivity and platform glitches, also hindered engagement for some. Conversely, participants who experienced high levels of support from instructors and peers were more likely to actively participate and complete the courses.

After engaging with the MOOCs, observed elicited influences on the PU, PEoU, and BI revealed that there were significant shifts in participants’ perceptions. For instance, the perceived usefulness increased significantly with participants recognising the value of MOOCs in expanding their knowledge base and developing practical teaching skills. However, the impact on perceived ease of use, at least initially, was less pronounced. While some participants found the platform more user-friendly than anticipated, others encountered challenges that negatively influenced their perceptions and therefore their initial behavioural intentions. As results show, certain participants took longer to embrace changing attitudes as elicited by remote working.

When taking in consideration the elucidated perceived benefits, participants who actively engaged with the course content and experienced the flexibility and self-paced nature of MOOCs reported higher levels of perceived usefulness and ease of use. Access to a wide range of resources, including videos, readings, and interactive exercises, was also positively associated with increased positive perceptions.

In terms of technological readiness, participants with prior experience of using online learning platforms and access to reliable internet connectivity demonstrated higher levels of engagement and reported more positive perceptions. Conversely, technical challenges, such as slow internet speeds and difficulties accessing course materials, negatively impacted the experience of some.

4.2. Motivation by Intrinsic vs. External Factors

As regards to the motivational factors, participants who were intrinsically motivated to learn and improve their teaching skills were more likely to persist with the MOOCs and report positive learning outcomes. Conversely, those who were primarily motivated by external factors, such as course requirements or credits, were more likely to experience difficulties and report lower levels of engagement. Challenges such as time constraints, workload pressures, and technical difficulties emerged as the most significant barriers to engagement. Participants who faced these challenges were more likely to experience frustration, disengagement, and therefore lower levels of perceived ease of use.

4.3. Implications for Teacher Education

The study revealed several unique findings specific to the context of teacher education. For instance, the strong emphasis on the importance of instructor support and the role of peer interaction (therefore the element of human presence) in fostering engagement among the course participants suggest that social and collaborative learning experiences are crucial for successful MOOC implementation. Furthermore, the study highlighted the potential of MOOCs to address the diverse learning needs of the course participants by providing flexible and personalised learning opportunities.

In terms of MOOC design and development, the findings of this study may have significant implications for teacher education. MOOC developers should prioritise user-friendliness, accessibility, and clear learning objectives (Gómez-Galán et al., 2020; Teo et al., 2018). They should also incorporate interactive elements and social learning opportunities to enhance engagement and facilitate peer interaction. Teacher training programmes can leverage MOOCs to provide flexible and cost-effective learning opportunities; however, careful planning and implementation are essential to ensure that MOOCs are effectively integrated into the existing teacher education curriculum and that adequate support is provided to participants.

4.4. Implications for Policymakers

The findings of this study can be useful to policymakers to inform decisions related to the funding and support of online learning initiatives in teacher education. Thus, investing in a carefully chosen infrastructure, providing training on online learning skills, and creating supportive learning environments are crucial for maximising the potential of MOOCs in this context.

Having said that, there are also certain limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, the research relied on a convenience sample of MOOC completers. Although 210 students initially enrolled in the MOOC, only 144 participants completed the course and were included in the analysis. This attrition pattern is consistent with the broader MOOC literature, which documents high dropout rates, and it highlights that our findings reflect the perceptions of those who persisted through to completion, rather than of all registrants.

Secondly, the sample was also demographically unbalanced: the vast majority were young, female pre-service teachers with little professional experience, while this limits external validity, it does mirror the typical profile of teacher education cohorts in this context.

Thirdly, the sample size (n = 144), though adequate for pre–post comparisons, limits the scope for subgroup analysis. Our research questions were not designed to compare subgroups, and we did not attempt inferential analyses by gender, age, geography, or teaching experience. Demographic data are reported only descriptively, and percentages should be interpreted as characterising this specific convenience sample rather than as generalisable findings.

Finally, the study primarily relied on descriptive statistics and reliability testing to capture changes in participants’ perceptions across time. Although this approach was sufficient for addressing the research questions, it did not allow for deeper exploration of predictive relationships between variables or causal inferences. Nonetheless, the inclusion of qualitative analysis of participants’ responses to open-ended questions strengthens the findings by offering richer detail and triangulation, providing context and meaning to the trends identified in the descriptive statistics. Future research should therefore incorporate inferential and multivariate methods to strengthen the generalisability and depth of findings.

5. Conclusions

Online professional development opportunities for educators makes one ask what are the most effective practices that can be employed (Bragg et al., 2021). The role that MOOCs play in fostering pedagogical and technological readiness within teachers’ professional development therefore requires further attention (Sezgin, 2020). Gómez-Galán et al. (2020) highlight how one of the most important scientific contributions on MOOCs is their rapid expansion, yet the most relevant dimension should be the pedagogical one. While MOOCs offer flexibility and enhanced social interactivity between participants and tutors, the study highlights how pedagogical traits within such Web 2.0 platforms should be given utmost importance. They underline how, rather than technical, the main identified issues are pedagogical requiring an adequate measurement into the transformative and therefore methodological impact underlying the facilitation of content in MOOCs. As authors, we stress that future research should explore the long-term impact of MOOCs on pre-service and in-service teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Longitudinal studies can be designed and implemented to track the qualities that participants in MOOCs intuitively develop around technological pedagogical content which over time can lead to understanding better the extent to which MOOCs contribute to their professional growth. Furthermore, qualitative research methods, such as one-to-one and/or focus groups that relate to specific subjects, can provide deeper insights into participants’ experiences and perceptions.

In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the potential and challenges of MOOCs in teacher education. While MOOCs offer numerous benefits, such as flexibility and access to a wide range of resources, their successful implementation requires careful planning, adequate support, and a clear understanding of the factors that influence participant engagement. By addressing the challenges and capitalising on the strengths of online learning, MOOCs can play a valuable role in preparing the next generation of teachers for the 21st century.