“I Sit Here Feeling the Beauty” Together with Nature—Children’s Knowledge in the Nature Kindergarten

Abstract

The use of nature as an environment to develop children’s knowledge in kindergartens is growing globally. Understanding how children learn in nature and the types of knowledge they acquire is crucial for this pedagogical approach. This article examines the outcomes for children aged 3–5 years within these practices. It examines how they acquire knowledge and the types of knowledge they gain, emphasizing that the focus extends beyond epistemic knowledge alone. The children’s knowledge of nature is analysed through Aristotle’s forms of knowledge—episteme (scientific knowledge), techne (skills), and phronesis (practical wisdom). This article also incorporates the theory of relational knowledge. Our study involved thirty children and twenty staff members from six nature groups, with the main method being child interviews. Our methods included child-guided tours of the “nature area,” playful focus group interviews with children, and child-drawn illustrations. This approach enabled the children to share their thoughts and experiences. The staff were interviewed in focus groups. Our results show that children acquire knowledge through sensory experiences, reflection, action, and interactions with nature over time. Learning occurs through the collaboration of three actors: nature, children, and staff. This allows children to think independently and develop relational knowledge about nature through their active engagement.

1. Introduction

“I sit here feeling the beauty” (girl, Oak nature kindergarten). The girl’s expression signifies deep joy from interacting with other life forms (Næss, 1986, 2017) and reflects a holistic understanding grounded in her experiences in a nature kindergarten. We live in a time of urgent, and indeed increasing, ecological and societal crises. We start this article with two assumptions. The first is that although children are not responsible for these current crises, their responses to them will be of critical importance. The second assumption is that these crises can only be met with a multitude of knowledge and competencies. This makes dialogue and learning with the natural world essential. Such learning takes time (Jickling et al., 2018), and unlike other educational settings, nature kindergartens may offer this time. Nature kindergarten can hence serve as a place that provides the time and space necessary for learning with nature to acquire much-needed knowledge. This article examines the outcomes for children aged 3–5 years within these practices. Our main method is inspired by the Mosaic approach (Clark, 2010).

Nature Kindergartens and Knowledge

Children in nature kindergartens spend most of their time in a natural environment, where nature is the educational basis for play and activities (Sandseter & Lysklett, 2016). In nature, children actively participate in developing their pedagogical practices. Staff enable children to take a central role in the learning process by avoiding structured activities and encouraging children’s initiatives to include natural resources (Alme & Reime, 2021).

Scandinavian ECEC (early childhood education and care) generally views children as explorers of the world, engaging their bodies and curiosities (Sandseter & Hagen, 2015), often in nature. These kindergartens are inspired by a multitude of educational theories, such as place-based learning, which emphasizes the location for knowledge development and connections through aesthetic and reflective experiences, as well as interactions with nature (Sobel, 1996, pp. 6–8; Mannion & Lynch, 2015). They also engage with real objects, a pedagogy that enhances children’s understanding and involvement (Phillips, 2014). Such exploration and involvement align with Vygotsky’s theory of learning through children’s activity, interaction, and participation (Vygotsky, 2004).

Children’s interactions with nature are important for their development and learning, alongside their connections with people and the environment (Malone, 2023). Time for free play fosters moments of wonder in nature kindergartens (Jørgensen, 2016). This can create moments where children pay attention to small details or animals, developing knowledge (Jørgensen, 2018). Children’s perception of information from the world is also affected by their movement in nature (Myrstad & Sverdrup, 2019). Environments that allow children to participate actively and pose questions to staff may create moments of wonder that promote knowledge and understanding (Thulin, 2010). This combination of familiarity and knowledge provides a holistic understanding where theory and practical experiences build on each other and create deeper insight and wisdom (Brunstad, 2020).

There are different types of nature kindergartens. In Norwegian nature kindergartens, open environments foster inclusion, creativity, and a holistic approach, where values like dialogue, community, and care for nature and sustainability become integral to the child (Alme & Reime, 2021, 2025). In “Forest Education,” children gain knowledge through body experiences and direct sensory impressions, as well as verbal knowledge (Tal et al., 2023, p. 1511). Emergent curricula are rooted in pedagogues that carefully observe and document children’s interests and use these curiosities to build on and deepen each child’s understanding and experiences (Harwood et al., 2020, p. 4). In nature, learning occurs through children’s curiosity, interests, exploration, and connection of theoretical knowledge to practical experience, which fosters environmental understanding, identity, connection, and engagement (Williams & Chawla, 2016). As “eco-citizens”, children understand themselves as part of the environment through participation, play, and exploration in nature (Heggen et al., 2019). The nature kindergarten offers participation that inspires, involves, and challenges children, where staff partially refrain from structuring activities. This fosters children’s creativity and responsibility (Alme & Reime, 2021). Increased control over children’s activities in outdoor settings reduces their freedom to explore, play, interact, and affect social and personal development (Jørgensen, 2018). It has also been argued that positive nature experiences with significant adults can foster engagement in environmental advocacy later in life (Chawla, 2015).

As previously stated, this article assumes that children are not responsible for the current crises, but their responses to them will be important. They need a multitude of knowledge and competencies to address these crises. Nature kindergartens provide a unique pedagogical setting to support this transformation. To investigate this further, we begin by describing the Aristotelian forms of knowledge: episteme, techne, and phronesis. Arguing that nature kindergartens provide opportunities for relational encounters that develop knowledge beyond these forms, we also explore how relational aspects of knowledge may be recognized and valued. Investigating what is learned is, however, not possible without also investigating how children learn. Therefore, in this article, we seek to answer the following question: How do children learn in nature kindergartens, and what types of knowledge appear?

2. Knowledge

“All men by nature desire to know”, said Aristotle (2003), and this is also true for children. Aristotle’s forms of knowledge—episteme, techne, and phronesis—are useful for a holistic understanding of children’s knowledge. In this respect, holistic knowledge is understood as the deeper insight originating from the interaction between theory and practical experience (Brunstad, 2020). We draw on Eikeland (2008, 2009, 2017, 2020), Stigen (2018), and Fosse and Hovdenak (2014), who connect these concepts to early childhood education. We aim to identify children’s outcomes and apply Aristotle’s forms as a tool to understand what they gain from nature encounters. Weldemariam and Wals (2020) argue that we need a relational, open, and inclusive practice where pedagogues and children interact with a more-than-human world. Nature kindergartens are ideal for such practices, with their relational focus fostering dynamic interactions between children, staff, and nature (Alme & Reime, 2021). We therefore supplement Aristotle’s knowledge forms with a special emphasis on relational knowledge and identification with nature.

2.1. Three Forms of Knowledge

Aristotle’s forms of knowledge address various aspects of understanding and action (Eikeland, 2008). Episteme, the theoretical form of knowledge, is objective and context-independent (Eikeland, 2020). This form involves irrefutable knowledge that can be proven (Fosse & Hovdenak, 2014) and cannot be otherwise (Stigen, 2018). Epistemic knowledge provides a basis for ethical reflection and further action (Eikeland, 2008). Techne, or practical knowledge, concerns the way in which something comes into being, such as creating with tools (Eikeland, 2009; Stigen, 2018). Rationality is a prerequisite for creative activity, such as the development of a skill or one’s techne. It is related to human action, production, and outcomes (Hovdenak & Wiese, 2017; Fosse & Hovdenak, 2014). Phronesis can be understood as the practical wisdom that helps us understand and act according to the demands of the situation (Eikeland, 2008). New situations necessitate new assessments based on previous experiences (Eikeland, 2008), resulting in new actions and phronesis. Such reflections and practical actions in phronesis illuminate our personal contributions to knowledge (Eikeland, 2008). Phronesis, episteme, and techne must be understood in relation to each other as a reflection link between practical experiences and theoretical insights (Eikeland, 2008, 2017).

Phronesis encourages children to consider ethical aspects when evaluating a situation (Eikeland, 2008). Such ethical reflection may activate critical thinking prior to action (Stigen, 2018; Fosse & Hovdenak, 2014). Hence, an ethical and political perspective promotes critical thinking and practical wisdom (Fosse & Hovdenak, 2014; Hovdenak & Wiese, 2017). The political perspective is important for providing children with insights into how their participation and actions can affect their daily lives, community, and environment. Good judgment, sensitivity in complex situations, openness to possibilities, and adapting general knowledge to the situation characterize phronesis (Fosse & Hovdenak, 2014).

2.2. Relational Knowledge

Relational knowledge, rooted in Socrates’ emphasis on the teacher–student relationship, is vital for education (Mintz, 2007). However, research shows that both human and more-than-human actors in relational interactions influence learning and teaching (Gravett, 2023; Gravett et al., 2024). Malone (2016) highlighted the importance of more-than-human actors in her study on children and dogs, revealing how these relationships can enhance our understanding of interconnections among humans, animals, and the rest of nature. Blenkinsop and Wilhelmsson (2024) further argued that relationships between humans and more-than-human nature, along with a focus on shared knowledge, can lead to more inclusive education.

Early childhood settings contain profound and under-communicated aspects of these relational encounters. The ecologist Arne Næss (1912–2009) argued that humans depend on the profound joy derived from engagement with other life forms (Næss, 1986, 2017). He claimed that the identity of all living beings is incomplete without their relationships with one another (Næss, 2017, p. 1). This interaction enhances our connection with nature, and by identifying with other living organisms, we may develop an ecological self (Næss, 1986). Hence, relational connections with nature may influence our identity, revealing the importance and potential of relational knowledge.

2.3. Nature, Children, and Staff Open Knowledge

While pedagogues, children, and nature all contribute to different knowledge, pedagogues are positioned to encourage the building of bridges between children and the more-than-human, acknowledging children’s contribution (Alme & Reime, 2025) and that nature can be a more-than-human actor (Boileau & Russell, 2020). This is particularly important as children’s spontaneous and intuitive forms of knowledge enable them to seek different encounters with the world, opening new opportunities for learning and other knowledge (Heggen et al., 2022). Likewise, nature has a voice that should be recognized and listened to (Blenkinsop & Wilhelmsson, 2025). This view allows nature to act as a co-pedagogue (Ford & Blenkinsop, 2018) or actor. When nature emerges as an active participant in pedagogical settings, it provides an uncertainty that contributes to learning and change (Blenkinsop & Wilhelmsson, 2025). This unpredictability is an integral aspect of pedagogical approaches (Østrem, 2024), and trusting in nature as a pedagogical actor may help us to open new perspectives and reevaluate norms (Blenkinsop & Wilhelmsson, 2025). Including this unpredictability by introducing “wild pedagogy” in two Danish kindergartens resulted in increased attention to more-than-human nature and greater opportunities for open engagement with the outdoors (Møller et al., 2025).

3. Methods

This article is based on material gathered in six nature kindergartens in 2017 and 2018 using a Mosaic approach (Clark, 2010). To honour the children’s perspectives and recognize their experiences and sensory perceptions, their knowledge was captured via child-guided tours of the “nature area” they normally played in, supplemented by focus group interviews with the children. This material was considered in combination with focus group discussions with the staff. The material was also used in Alme and Reime (2021, 2025). GPT UiO was used to translate an earlier version of the text from Norwegian to English.

3.1. Design and Selection

This study is based on material from nature kindergartens that normally had outdoor activities for five to eight hours a day in varied natural and cultural landscapes. The nature kindergarten is a common model that reflects Norway’s culture and history, where nature is seen as an important part of a good upbringing (Jørgensen, 2014). In addition, there are no significant differences in parents’ education levels, incomes, or outdoor activities between nature kindergartens and regular kindergartens (Moen et al., 2008). The educational background of the staff in this study included a mix of pedagogues, special education teachers, skilled workers, trainees, and assistants, with most also having experience from regular kindergartens. Nature kindergarten staff, uses nature as a play space, and actively engages with children by encouraging them to share their observations to enhance learning (Nilsen, 2006).

Three to five staff members normally oversaw 12 to 25 children. The nature kindergartens in this study were selected by the administration in five municipalities and given fictitious names: Elm, Birch, Corylus, Dwarf Birch, Oak, and Pine. They all had a fire pit, a lavvu, and self-made play equipment. The areas the children could play in were not fenced.

3.2. Implementation

The kindergarten staff recruited children to this study through their parents. A total of 30 children, aged three to five, and 20 staff participated in the investigations.

We started with a child-guided tour, where the children led us through the nature playground and shared descriptions of their daily lives. Using notes from the tour, we conducted 30–40-min playful interviews in a sheltered area, such as a bonfire house. A pedagogue was present to ensure the children’s comfort. We created a playful interview where the children drew pictures of children in nature from a wooden box. Each drawing had a key question from the interview guide, such as “Can you tell me about playing in the forest?” This approach allowed the children to take the initiative, minimizing our input. Next, the children illustrated their experiences in nature with drawings. These drawings enriched our analysis.

The staff, in groups of 2–5, participated in 1-h and 30-min focus group interviews. Each group included a variety of educational backgrounds. The interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide, which allowed the moderator to encourage an open discussion among the participants.

The playful interviews with the children and the staff focus group interviews were recorded digitally and transcribed. Our material is based on the transcripts and notes from the child-guided tour and focus group interviews.

3.3. Analyses

The analysis is inspired by reflexive thematic analysis grounded in qualitative research (Braun & Clarke, 2021). The study is characterized by proximity to empirical data and inspiration from theories of knowledge, which creates an abductive approach to the material. Following Braun and Clarke (2021), we first familiarized ourselves with the material and identified patterns in the children’s knowledge in nature kindergarten. We then categorized the patterns into codes using NVivo. During this process, one topic acquired two new codes, and some code names were adjusted. The 17 codes were then sorted, refined, and organized into four topics: 1. how children learn, 2. what children know, 3. what children can do, and 4. how children think and act. The analytical process is shown in

Table 1. The analytical process, showing the development of codes and topics.

Initial patterns	Children’s acquisition of skills through experience/sensation, interaction with each other and nature, independent exploration in an ever-changing natural environment
Codes	Creating your own play. Concrete experience in nature (unpredictable/time). Natural materials. How children learn. Children’s input. Relationship to nature–nature teaching. Relationship to each other. Shared reflection. Freedom. Morality. Natural knowledge. Species knowledge. Visual sensory experience. Autumn.
Introductory topics	Play and creation itself. Children’s experience/understanding. Freedom. Sensation in nature. Children learn/knowledge about nature. Reflection. Children’s mastery of nature. Children’s and staff norms/morality.
Adjusted topics	Children’s knowledge of nature. Experience/mastery in nature. Interaction and reflection with nature. Creation through nature.
Recognized topics	1. How children learn. 2. Children know. 3. Children can. 4. Children think and act.

.

The topics and associated codes are shown in

Table 2. The topics and associated codes.

How Children Learn in Nature	The Children Know	The Children Can	Children Think and Act
Concrete experiences in nature Natural material Visual and sensory experience Time and reflection Nature teaches Relationship to nature Children’s input Staff norms	Nature knowledge Knowledge of species Harvesting	Practical skills concrete experience In nature Crafts	Creating your own play Relationships to each other and nature Shared reflection Norms and morality of children Freedom

. As illustrated in the table below, we identified four topics along with their corresponding codes.

3.4. Ethical Considerations and Reflections

The participants were informed that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw their consent. The staff provided the children with tailored information based on guidelines from the researchers. All names are fictitious, and ethical guidelines were followed. A child-inspired approach in methodology, combined with a safe interview setting, reduced the power imbalance between children and researchers. Our knowledge of nature and nature kindergartens may have influenced the selection of excerpts, leading to a “narrow-minded” interpretation by focusing on specific themes (Creswell, 2018). We aimed to avoid this by employing all material in the collective reflexive analysis.

4. Findings

4.1. How Children Learn in Nature

4.1.1. Are Those Flowers Still Alive?

Children in nature kindergartens have many sensory experiences. This affects the way they learn, such as when they know the names of berries they have seen and tasted before.

Children’s Reflections

Sienna and Noah in Birch observed a yellow flower leaf during the child-guided tour. In the interview, they were shown a summer picture of the same flower. Based on these observations, the children reflected on the flower’s life cycle and became aware and curious about how it has changed:

	Sienna:	I saw a flower in the picture.
	Sienna:	But it was a yellow leaf (on a guided tour).
	Sienna:	I saw a flower there (in the picture), but now it’s gone (on the tour).
	Noah:	Are those flowers still alive?

The children’s conversation illustrates how being in the same place over time allows for repeated sensory experiences and detailed observations. This sparks reflection and wonder, such as contemplating whether a flower lives on even when it appears to be “gone” and wilted. Their reflections suggest that children think independently about natural processes, but also that nature is active and unpredictable for the children, changing over time. This sensory engagement seems to foster children’s early understanding of the life cycle of plants, making nature an active actor in the learning process.

Oscar in Pine explained how the children learn and why they know the names of berries as follows:

Oscar:

We have seen them before!

This indicates that Oscar gained epistemic knowledge about berries from practical, sensory experiences, like seeing and tasting. He seemed to remember their names from repeated encounters with a conscious pedagogue who used them.

Staff’s Reflections

The staff highlighted how children learn in multiple ways in nature. For example, Theo said the following:

Theo:

In the forest, subjects fall into your lap, evoking deep emotions.

Theo highlights how unpredictable encounters between children, staff and nature shapes the pedagogical content. Nature offers, as an actor, new experiences to children and staff.

The staff emphasized the children’s interest in their learning. All interviews with the children and staff highlighted the freedom to explore, and the staff suggested that the children benefit most from learning when they pursue what interests them. Linda in Birch described this as follows:

Linda:

We prioritize their interests. If we only come up with things that the children aren’t really interested in, we won’t engage them.

Many staff members emphasized how learning happens all the time. Hannah and Ilsa in Dwarf Birch described learning as follows:

	Hannah:	We do that all the time... how many pinecones. A child said, I can count to 200, actually...
	Ilsa:	Yes, they can hang from a branch and say; Let’s see how long I can hang...
	Hannah:	Then they count with us.
	Lisa:	I hear them starting with what 2 + 2 is. They begin to add a little,
	Ilsa:	and subtract.
	Hannah:	A girl said, Look at me, yesterday I could only do two branches, but today I can do three... Math is everywhere.

Here, we see that the children learn through sensory experiences and interactions with nature by touching, smelling, and feeling. Their activities inspire learning and foster relationships with nature through repeated exploration and play in the natural environment.

Sensory interaction with trees, cones, and the staff seems to help the children’s memory and learning in counting, as the staff highlighted the children’s progress in this subject.

Theo in Oak described another story about learning:

There’s a rule that children cannot go further than the distance where they can see the staff. A small group of children in Oak has wandered a bit too far and can no longer see me. However, I am behind the children, hidden from view but observing the situation. The children gather and chat, and suddenly one of them climbs a tree, spotting me from the top.

This example shows how staff may facilitate real-life situations for children to learn and how they build on prior practical experiences with heights and treetops. The children’s understanding of the value of teamwork and joint reflection is evident in their collaboration. Furthermore, they demonstrate autonomy and initiative when they engage with the situation and solve it independently of adults.

These examples show how children’s sensory experiences with unpredictable natural situations are central to learning and relational development. The staff argued that children learn best when given the freedom to explore their interests and are prepared for situations that promote cooperation, reflection, agency, and problem-solving.

4.2. What Children Learn in Nature

4.2.1. Episteme: Mushrooms Turn into Soil!

Children’s Reflections

The children demonstrated their knowledge by discussing foxes, squirrels, and adders. Leo in Elm stated that the adder is the most venomous animal in Norway, and that some animals hibernate. The children also talked about various cones, flowers, hazelnuts, sticks, leaf types, and berries they picked in the forest. The staff also talked about harvesting and tasting.

A conversation between Jack, Lisa, and Eva from Corylus showed how the children described some of their knowledge:

	Jack:	Leaves can turn yellow!
	Jack:	And brown.
	Researcher: Why do they turn brown and yellow then?
	Lisa:	Because it’s starting to be spring. And if they turn brown, they begin to rot. Actually, the mushrooms we have in the forest turn black. That means they are rotting.
	Eva:	And old, and then they turn into soil (...) And then they turn black.
	Jack:	Mushrooms can turn into soil! (...) Yes, they turn black.
	Researcher: Have you seen that?
	Jack:	Yes... And then they turn into soil, and then they fall to the ground.

Here, the children demonstrate knowledge of the changes throughout the seasons. This reflects their understanding of change, underpinned by an epistemic knowledge of the life cycle. Their understanding is grounded in visual and sensory experiences in nature, coupled with reflective thinking in consistent engagement over time.

Staff’s Reflections

In Corylus, Carol and Angela described how the children recognized and were amazed by leaves full of holes that they found.

	Carol:	I don’t know where we found these caterpillars, and we also found some of these leaves. And it’s a few weeks ago.
	Angela:	Yes, it’s already been a month.
	Carol:	But they keep coming with these leaves still. And look—here’s another one and another one!, the children said.

The children associated the holes with caterpillar larvae, and these captured the children’s attention over time. This situation indicates that although the children seem to have gained epistemic knowledge about the connection between caterpillar larvae and the holes in the leaves, the staff is unaware of where they discovered them. The children remember the caterpillar larvae and repeatedly present the leaves to the staff, indicating an interest in learning more.

Children acquire epistemic knowledge from sensory experiences in nature. When these change with the seasons, they foster reflections on plant life cycles in the environment. The children’s repeated inquiries to the staff about the leaves with holes may indicate a desire for more information. Once again, we see that time and place are crucial for knowledge about nature.

4.2.2. Techne: We Can Climb Trees!

Both the children and staff conveyed that the children can learn skills in nature, such as fire-making, cooking, wood-splitting, sawing, and whittling. Tree-climbing was mentioned in all interviews, where older children serve as role models for younger ones. This practical experience occurs with staff present, allowing the children to gain confidence in assessing their actions.

Children’s Reflections

The children possessed practical knowledge, or techne, gained through authentic experiences in nature, with tools, and with each other and staff. These experiences are given time and accompanied by reflection. The children recognized that skills require practice, failure, reflection, and sometimes risk, and that this results in life experiences. The children in Elm and Dwarf Birch mentioned that they can get caught in the trees and get hurt. During a guided tour in the “climbing forest” at Birch Kindergarten, Noah and Alice demonstrated and explained how to improve climbing and balancing skills. When the researcher showed them a picture of the tree Noah climbed, they described the process as follows:

	Alice:	He fell down five times! (She looks at Noah)
	Noah:	We can climb trees.
	Alice:	Climb.
	Noah:	We have been in the climbing tree forest.
	Researcher: Where did you learn to climb?
	Noah:	Well, we just have to do this, we just have to go to a tree and crawl.

Lisa at Corylus and Willow at Dwarf Birch described climbing as follows:

	Lisa:	We are getting better at climbing, especially.
	Willow:	I have climbed trees, and I’ve learned it myself, but some have taught me.

The children highlighted that they can climb; they also showed that they know the risks by describing how one may fall, and that they learn through guidance from other children. Although this guidance is important, the children acquired their climbing skills through practical experiences, developing techne. Reflecting on this approach supports their skills. This was evident when they highlighted how climbing develops through repeated practice, trial and failure over time. These experiences contribute to a deeper understanding of risk and practical skills. When children learn these skills independently and with support from others, they demonstrate their ability to act independently and support each other.

The children described activities such as drilling, sawing, hammering, nailing, woodworking, and whittling. They acknowledged the risks, such as when they described how they may hit their fingers while nailing. The following dialogue among Leon, Sean, Peter, and Adam in Elm highlights the practical skills learned through direct experiences:

	Researcher: What can you learn in nature?
	Leo:	To be up in the woods and pound with a hammer.
	Sean:	To learn how to whittle.
	Leo:	To saw.
	Peter:	I haven’t received my carving certificate yet.
	Peter:	Neither have I.
	Sean:	I’m almost done with it.
	Adam:	I have received mine.
	Leo:	I have also received it; it’s because we are in the preschool group.

The children in these nature kindergartens engaged in woodwork activities and expressed that they learn practical knowledge of using hammers and saws. They need a carving certificate to whittle without supervision. This affirms that they have the required skills to whittle safely. The children’s statements show that they understand how to acquire the skill.

Staff’s Reflections

Lisa at Dwarf Birch emphasized that the children participate in “all” daily routines, including cooking, carrying firewood, and dressing themselves. The staff stated that the children learn what is wise and what is not from experience. They also highlighted that the children reflect on their own decisions. Maria in Pine described this as follows:

The children are very interested in wool clothing and have understood the necessity of wearing wool socks when it’s cold. They also know about cotton socks, demonstrating significant learning.

The children’s repeated sensory experiences with temperature, precipitation, and wind provided them with practical experiences in dressing. These experiences involve trial and failure. Now, when it is cold, children choose warm wool clothing.

4.2.3. Phronesis: We Think!

In nature kindergartens, children create their own toys, games, and ideas for play in collaboration with nature, one another, and staff. They recognize possibilities and highlight unique contributions, such as transforming a stick into a sward with their creativity. When staff describe how children explore a decaying tree trunk, they highlight the shared exploration that involves both children and nature. Play and exploration allow children to evaluate and collaborate in their decision-making with nature. This may gradually develop phronesis through creativity and independent thought.

Nature is important for fostering independent thinking, as evidenced by children asking adults critical questions related to environmental issues in preschool practice. Here, their contributions become apparent through their compassion and care for the environment.

Children’s Reflections

The importance of children’s contributions to play, their ideas, and their ability to think independently emerged in all interviews. The children also consistently stated that they govern play. Mike, Peter, and Ben created play by transforming natural materials in their minds. New games emerged by combining prior experiences with new ones:

	Mike in Oak:	We come up with the games... and then we can combine them, like robber-cops.
	Peter in Elm:	We can actually play as if the stick is a sword and pretend to be Captain Sabertooth.
	Peter in Elm:	We think.
	Ben in Dwarf-Birch:	Our brains decide.

By transforming natural objects into toys, children demonstrate independent thinking, creativity, and the freedom to explore. Play emerges as a crucial space for developing imagination and problem-solving skills. This continuous redefinition of natural materials indicates creativity and innovation.

In the children’s interviews, they consistently used “we” instead of “I,” highlighting their collective voice and their role in representing the children’s community. Their close relations were also evident when they included others in their play and helped one another.

The children reflected on their interactions with nature. In Pine Kindergarten, they discovered a dead crow and buried it together with the staff. They discussed plastic in nature earlier. Upon finding the dead crow in the forest, the children, with the staff’s support, contemplated whether the cause of death was plastic or a wing injury. This was highlighted in the descriptions provided by Carla, Lisa, Karl, and Carol:

	Carla:	Crowman, he...
	Lisa:	He was buried because he was dead.
	Lisa:	We found him under a large stone.
	Carol:	Yes, he surely injured his wings or something.
	Karl:	Or he ate the plastic.
	Carol:	Or he got injured on his wings and fell down and died.

This serves as an example of how nature provides unpredictable events when it becomes an actor in pedagogical practices. The children’s reflections on the cause of death indicate their knowledge. They chose to bury the crow, showing empathy and recognition of the relationship with the more-than-human. This relational understanding can reflect an expression of phronesis, as it involves making a good decision based on reflection.

Staff’s Reflections

The staff were clear that the children care for one another, that they collaborate, think, and act together. Theo from Oak described this as follows:

They (the children) collaborate to carry the ladder through the forest; some work at the front, others walk on the side, and some push from behind. They must also turn and steer. I believe the most important lesson they learn is the necessity of communication and teamwork; they cannot simply go their own way as individuals.

It is evident that both the children and staff function as a team, with the children acting as participants who work together. The children’s engagement, experiences, contributions, relations, and communication skills—and the importance of environment—were clearly highlighted. The relation with and the importance of the environment were highlighted by Hanna from Dwarf Birch:

There was a girl sitting on a rock, and I thought she had no one to play with; she looked a bit sad and gloomy. Are you sad? Can I help you with something? She replied: I’m just sitting here feeling the beauty!

The staff described a child who experiences nature, indicating that experiences in nature bring joy and value to the children. This suggests that the girl has a relational connection with nature, which was also evident in the final example from Pine:

When the kindergarten organized mini-Olympics with several other kindergartens in the region, some adults from another kindergarten wanted to release helium balloons. The children’s ability for critical reflection emerged; they immediately said, “That’s not good.”

In this context, the children play a crucial role in the staff’s actions by preventing helium balloons from being released into nature. Their commitment to preventing plastic pollution in the natural environment is a sign of their relational knowledge. The children demonstrated phronesis and employed ethical reasoning.

5. Discussion of Children’s Knowledge

5.1. Knowledge of Nature Requires Sensing

Children acquire knowledge through direct sensory experiences when they observe, explore, and reflect. The children’s reflections indicate that they are naturally curious about nature (Sandseter & Hagen, 2015). Myrstad and Sverdrup (2019) argues that children gain knowledge from such sensory experiences in nature. According to Tal et al. (2023), children acquire knowledge when these physical experiences and direct sensory inputs are supported by verbal knowledge, such as when staff name and discuss natural elements. When the children reflected on the life cycle of plants that they observed over time, they demonstrated the reflective experiences that Sobel (1996) and Mannion and Lynch (2015) argue to be central elements in knowledge development. Reflection and sensing at the same place were hence important for the children’s knowledge development in this study.

Familiarity is linked to children’s play and exploration of species and other natural phenomena. Their direct experiences with various species, appearances, textures, and tastes over time result in a deeper understanding of plants and the changes in species over time. The combination of familiarity and knowledge in our study provides a comprehensive understanding, where theory and practical experience build on each other, creating deeper insight and wisdom (Brunstad, 2020).

5.2. Knowledge of Nature Requires Time

As the children spend most of their days outside, they have ample time to interact with nature during sensory exploration and reflection. This provides vital time for learning (Jickling et al., 2018).

When the children in nature kindergartens are allowed to revisit and observe environmental changes over time, they acquire different knowledge than if they only explore the area once. Our results suggest that time is crucial for this reflection, as children consider and demonstrate an understanding of relationships in nature. Hence, the time aspect appears to be central in encouraging children to reflect on natural processes. Furthermore, children’s participation in nature (Alme & Reime, 2021) and time spent in nature (Alme & Reime, 2025; Møller et al., 2025) may explain why they had the opportunity to reflect on natural processes in our study.

Prolonged stays in the same location characterize the learning situations in our study. “Time and practice” are a touchstone in wild pedagogies (Jickling et al., 2018). This underlines that knowledge development takes time (Jickling et al., 2018, p. 9). In the nature kindergartens in our study, children had time to explore, observe, and reflect on natural processes throughout the seasons, and they enhanced their knowledge when given time to explore small details. Hence, learning appeared to occur because of children’s familiarity and sensory engagement with the location over time.

Concentration on Small Details

Children acquire epistemic knowledge through concrete experiences, focusing and reflecting on the appearance, colour, and changes in different elements. This attentiveness to details in nature creates moments of wonder and prompts reflection (Jørgensen, 2018). Children take greater responsibility for their activities in nature-based preschools. As stated by Alme and Reime (2021), this self-activity may enhance children’s opportunities to sense and engage with natural details. Such knowledge and information gained from sensory experiences with natural details are central to children’s development (Jørgensen, 2018; Myrstad & Sverdrup, 2019).

Children’s focus on small details may sometimes not be recognized by staff. In this study, the scenario with the larvae illustrates how actively participating children “ask” by presenting leaves to staff and how this is unrecognized by the staff. Consequently, the children missed a good learning opportunity (Thulin, 2010). Joint exploration with staff could have provided a firmer basis for the children’s continued reflection on details and the development of phronesis.

5.3. Knowledge Requires Independent Thinking

The analysis in this study reveals that children think independently and display creativity. Such self-activity can be central to personal development (Jørgensen, 2018). An earlier study using the same material (Alme & Reime, 2021) showed that the staff fostered creativity and responsibility by partially refraining from designing activities. A creative “cognitive power” may be explained by self-directed activities and the challenges they provide when children play with and in nature. When children initiate thinking and engagement with the world, more opportunities for learning emerge than when staff are the initiators (Heggen et al., 2022). In our study, the children’s reflections contribute to new possibilities for knowledge. In their encounter with a dead crow, they thought independently, made an ethical assessment, and decided to bury it. This situation illustrates relational knowledge cultivated through interaction with the more-than-human. It represents a relational and inclusive practice where educators and children engage with a more-than-human world (Weldemariam & Wals, 2020).

The ability to think and act independently is also evident when children physically distance themselves from a pedagogue. Alme and Reime (2025) find that challenges provide children with valuable life experiences. Children demonstrate phronesis by assessing that climbing will give them a better overview and let them see the staff. As active and independent beings (Biesta, 2017; James et al., 1998), they think, test their contributions, and succeed. This interaction and participation foster development (Vygotsky, 2004), as children reflect together, find solutions, seize situations, demonstrate initiative, and exercise phronesis.

5.4. Three Actors in Nature Kindergarten Practices

A consistent finding is that nature kindergartens seem to have three different educators, represented by nature, children, and staff.

5.4.1. Nature as Actor

Nature acts as an actor by manifesting and “showing” itself through changes over time, stimulating children to reflect. Sobel (1996) and Mannion and Lynch (2015) emphasize reflective experiences and interaction with nature in knowledge development. For instance, a wobbly branch responding to a child’s actions can guide their next steps. Children are challenged, and the fact that children are challenged is characteristic of nature kindergartens (see Alme & Reime, 2021; Ford & Blenkinsop, 2018; Blenkinsop & Wilhelmsson, 2024). Such challenges foster children’s meaning-making outside of established categories (Alme & Reime, 2021). Children gain experience in assessing new situations and acting. This makes nature an interactive partner for knowledge.

A tree may emerge as a subject when an inspiring branch captures a child’s interest, and the child responds to the tree’s inspiration by counting. Here, nature acts as a co-pedagogue, or actor, possessing a voice that we listen to (Blenkinsop & Wilhelmsson, 2024, 2025). Children are likely inspired by trees, which motivate them and present a physical challenge when they begin counting. The tree’s unique contributions, unpredictable risks, and inspiration to the child’s learning can hardly be provided by anything other than nature.

It has been argued that all relationships in pedagogical work involve unpredictability (Østrem, 2024). Nature often offers situations that are difficult to foresee, and this adds an unpredictability that prompts children to explore. Nature’s unpredictability is powerful and inspiring, making nature meetings the focus of attention, reflection, and action. When children and staff recognize the learning experiences that nature provides, this unpredictable nature helps us develop new perspectives (Blenkinsop & Wilhelmsson, 2025). Thus, nature becomes an actor that offers new and unexpected life experiences.

5.4.2. Children as Actors

The children’s contributions as actors were crucial for learning in this study. While the children showed interest and explored, the staff supported and interacted with the children to provide a solid foundation for further knowledge. Heggen et al. (2022) advocate for a greater appreciation of spontaneous and intuitive input from children, as valuing children’s contributions opens up pedagogical practices that staff may not have initially valued. As active contributors and part of the team, as in our study, children influence and are influenced by their environment, complementing the knowledge of adults. In our nature kindergartens, the children are considered responsible and active participants who contribute (James et al., 1998; Biesta, 2017). When they take responsibility for their own exploration and knowledge development, their actions can be understood as phronesis.

Works by Alme and Reime (2021, 2025) illustrate how children support one another and demonstrate care, highlighting their role as actors. When staff view children as part of the team, it allows children to influence which pedagogical activities become central (Heggen et al., 2022). These participatory practices are characteristic of nature kindergartens (Alme & Reime, 2021). Engaging children and acknowledging their ideas may lead to a deeper understanding and involvement with their environment (Phillips, 2014). With this independence, children can emerge as eco-citizens (Heggen et al., 2019).

5.4.3. Staff as Actors

The staff in our kindergartens has the overarching responsibility for the children’s learning and development. When staff engage in situations that interest children, they recognize them as responsible and active participants (James et al., 1998; Biesta, 2017). This suggests that the staff take their responsibility seriously and adapt their practice to meet the children’s interests.

Participation in activities such as exploring nature appears to engage children and deepen their understanding of relational contexts. In this study, the staff emerge as participating educators when they respond to the children’s interests and questions. This is crucial for learning (Harwood et al., 2020; Jickling et al., 2018; Thulin, 2010; Williams & Chawla, 2016). The staff’s support of the children’s interests is also observable in their interactions with nature, where they encourage connections between humans and the natural world through reflective discussions. Boileau and Russell (2020) and Weldemariam and Wals (2020) highlight how relational practices that involve the more-than-human can contribute to the development of children’s ethical and relational knowledge, providing them with a deeper understanding of the relationship between humans and nature. When staff offer practices rooted in nature, children can further develop as engaged eco-citizens (Heggen et al., 2019).

5.5. Knowledge Children Gain

5.5.1. Children Know

In the literature, episteme is expressed in children’s knowledge of nature. Eikeland (2020) describe epistemic knowledge as objective and context-independent. By observing details in nature, children gain knowledge (Jørgensen, 2018). Such experiences provide children with knowledge about various species (leaves, flowers, fungi) and their life cycles, and we consider this epistemic context-independent knowledge. This study illustrates how children’s studies of species’ details contribute to a nascent understanding of life cycles, a knowledge that reflects their epistemic understanding. Such knowledge relates to children’s sensory perception of information from the world (Myrstad & Sverdrup, 2019). In the episode with larvae, sensory perception was evident as the children combined observations of the leaves with previous experiences. Additionally, the children possessed epistemic knowledge about the consequences of plastic in nature, motivating their actions. This shows that children can use their epistemic knowledge.

5.5.2. Children Do

Techne is evident when children perform various skills based on practical training and understanding. Activities such as climbing, whittling, and dressing demonstrate children’s abilities to engage in hands-on experiences. Reflective experiences are crucial for such knowledge development (Sobel, 1996; Mannion & Lynch, 2015). Through trial and failure, children can assess the relationship between clothing and temperature or understand what is required to whittle safely. In tree climbing, techne becomes apparent as children continuously reflect and make new assessments about what they can do; they master and articulate how to gain these skills. Vygotsky (2004) emphasizes that through participation and interaction, children create meaning; as they climb trees, they understand that balance and interaction with the tree are vital for success, discovering how things come into being. This practical and action-related knowledge is known as techne (Eikeland, 2009; Stigen, 2018).

5.5.3. Children Understand and Act

Phronesis in our study stems from a combination of knowledge and experience. An example is when the children demonstrated empathy and care for the environment by opposing the release of helium balloons. Empathy and motivation are key in fostering children’s environmental care (Chawla, 2009). Their concern for animals and understanding that they could influence the situation show their engagement and motivation for environmental stewardship and exemplify phronesis.

The children possessed knowledge about the harmful consequences of plastic. This enabled them to evaluate possibilities and employ their epistemic understanding. Children reflect, act, and complement the staff’s knowledge (James et al., 1998). This provides an example of how pedagogues can learn from children (Heggen et al., 2022). Children emerge as knowledge bearers, reminding educators of vital environmental knowledge as eco-citizens (Heggen et al., 2019). They also highlight relational knowledge by understanding the interconnection between humans and nature. Ethical care that reflects connections and actions based on relationships is an important part of phronesis. Children’s agency evokes the notion of ethically reflective eco-citizens; they are not merely objects of pedagogical interventions (Biesta, 2017) but think independently.

5.5.4. Children Relate

Children’s identification and relations with nature seem to be favourable in nature kindergartens, where interactions and encounters with the more-than-human nature are prominent. In this article, we define relational knowledge as that which arises from interactions among humans, living organisms, and their environment, enriching the learning process. Our results show that children help each other, and it has been argued that this is supported by the relational focus of nature kindergartens (Alme & Reime, 2021).

Nature kindergartens foster dynamic interactions between children, staff, and nature (Alme & Reime, 2021). Blenkinsop and Wilhelmsson (2024) argue that relationships between humans and nature can lead to a more inclusive education grounded in the environment. In several situations in our study, the children sought out natural phenomena at their own initiative, such as when the girl wondered if the flower was dead. This may express a relationship with nature and indicate empathy for the flower.

The children’s commitment to preventing plastic pollution in the natural environment also showed their relational knowledge. Malone (2016) highlights the importance of more-than-human actors, revealing how these relationships can enhance the understanding of interconnections between humans and nature. In our study, the children demonstrated their awareness of the environment and their responsibility to protect it. This shows relational knowledge in practice. Introducing “wild pedagogy” in kindergartens has also resulted in increased attention to more-than-human nature and opportunities for children to develop and, perhaps even more importantly, display their relational knowledge of nature (Møller et al., 2025). Hence, it seems well established that including nature as an active participant, as an actor in pedagogical settings, supports the establishment of relationships between children and the more-than-human.

5.5.5. Children Identify with Nature

The children’s empathy and care for nature suggest that the children attributed value to nature. In their encounter with the dead crow, the children reflected on its poor conditions, demonstrating empathy as they considered the cause of death: was it plastic or an injury to its wings? The children’s care and ethical considerations in burying “Crowman” indicate an emotional connection and identification with the crow. Their relational knowledge, as it pertains to the crow, indicates a deeper understanding of “Crowman’s” life and underscores the need for mutual care between humans and nature. Næss (1986) links this identification with nature to an expansion of an ecological self.

Næss argues that we are dependent on the joy derived from interacting with other life forms (Næss, 1986, 2017). Although the finding of the dead crow is a singular event that prompts an identification with nature, likely, the children’s repeated experiences with similar encounters in nature over time cultivate a close relationship with the natural world. Our title, “I sit here feeling the beauty”, shows some of the potential for positive feelings that lie in nature encounters. The girl’s description of her feelings indicates deep joy and a relationship that may bring her a sense of wholeness, which is difficult to foster without opportunities for interaction with nature. Næss argues that such experiences may expand our identities and our understanding of our “self” to include our ecological environment; this identification as an ecological self provides profound joy, making us whole (Næss, 1986, 2017).

6. Conclusions and Further Implications

We argue that children’s sensory experiences in nature over time foster reflection and learning. Engaging in independent thinking contributes to personal development and provides essential contributions to new knowledge. Nature’s constant transformation, interaction, inspiration, and unpredictable events serve as significant pedagogical elements for children’s learning and life experiences. Children, both as actors and eco-citizens, evolve through interaction and participation (Vygotsky, 2004). This process is facilitated in nature kindergartens.

Children demonstrate epistemic knowledge when they recognize the names of species, reflect on their life cycles, and present an understanding of the consequences of plastic in nature. Their descriptions of sensory experiences and detailed observations validate their understanding. By practicing skills such as climbing and engaging in reflective assessments, they demonstrate capability, or techne. Practical wisdom, or phronesis, emerges through both reflection and action, as children utilize prior knowledge, think critically, and complement the pedagogues’ knowledge to enhance their agency.

The relational knowledge that children acquire is clearly expressed through their efforts and actions to prevent plastic pollution in the natural environment, where they demonstrate an increased awareness of more-than-human nature.

Children learn through a process that includes nature, themselves, and staff as actors. Children and staff learn from each other, yet nature serves as the strongest actor, providing entry points and inspiration for numerous learning situations. Identification with nature is demonstrated through the children’s ethical considerations and care in burying a dead crow, indicating an emotional connection and a deeper understanding. Næss’s (1986) perspective on our ecological self emphasizes that such experiences are important for development and relationship with nature.

The girl who appreciates the beauty of nature has gained epistemic insight through play, techne, and practical experiences and phronesis through reflective thinking and identification with nature via relational knowledge. In encountering the more-than-human nature, we can better understand that we are all interconnected and that sustaining life requires support of the environment and the collective. A crucial step forward for early childhood education and care is to appreciate nature, children, and staff as actors, to include knowledge through sensory and practical experiences and relational meetings, to allow for the genuine, critical, and ethical reflections and actions that are essential for children’s knowledge development, and to focus on relationships and support children’s identification with nature.

Through sensory engagement and encounters with nature over time, a deeper relationship may form that transcends learning requirements and standardization, fostering an enduring identification with nature. This may hold significance beyond our understanding and allow us all to enjoy the beauty of nature.