COVID-19 and Digital Transformation in Higher Education Institutions: Towards Inclusive and Equitable Access to Quality Education

Abstract

While the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has affected both developing and developed countries, students from disadvantaged groups have suffered significantly. During the pandemic, these students not only struggled to access online education but also faced various forms of exclusion. In the post-COVID-19 pandemic era, this systematic literature review employs the concept of social justice framework to investigate the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education worldwide, focusing on the opportunities and challenges of digital transformation in ensuring inclusive and equitable access to quality higher education. The findings suggest that while digital transformation in higher education has provided substantive benefits, its adoption has also ushered in challenges for learning. The review emphasizes that higher education institutions (HEIs), alongside their governments, bear the responsibility of mitigating the challenges inherent in the context of digital learning, thereby advocating for the implementation of comprehensive strategies that adhere to best practices and embrace inclusivity. By operationalizing these strategies, HEIs will be ensuring equitable opportunities and success for all students, while also preventing analogous challenges that may arise in instances of future crises limiting physical mobility.

1. Introduction

The world has been disrupted by the unprecedented coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak, causing widespread disorder across almost every aspect of human life [1]. This pandemic has initiated a transformative era, upsetting traditional ways of study, work, and interaction [2]. Higher education institutions (HEIs) have not been exempted from the effects of this crisis. As emphasized by Abdrasheva et al. [3], the impact of COVID-19 on HEIs has been both diverse and profound, presenting major disparities across nations and among institutions. When the pandemic began to heighten in early March 2020, HEIs, alongside secondary and primary schools, were forced to suspend in-person operations and shut down campuses to protect staff and students from the contagious and deadly coronavirus, rendering it impractical for students to access educational facilities, causing significant setbacks and worsening inequality gaps [4]. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), by mid-April 2020, almost every country had imposed nationwide lockdowns, affecting over 1.57 learners, constituting over 90% of the global student populace [5]. This drastic change extended beyond the traditional limits of teaching and learning, affecting the fundamental operations of educational institutions. Many students, including those in remote areas and from abroad caught up by lockdowns and travel restrictions, had to delay or withdraw their studies until the crisis subsided [6]. This negatively affected student enrollment numbers and the economic stability of educational institutions. Consequently, a compelling need emerged for a strong and active academic management information system capable of supporting distance learning activities and providing online financial and academic services. In response, many institutions hastily adapted to the new normal and underwent rapid digital transformation by incorporating digital technologies into their functions to ensure business continuity and enable remote learning [7].

In contemporary discourse, there has been a significant surge in digital transformation, a trend accelerated further by the worldwide impact of the COVID-19 crisis [8]. However, while the concept of digital transformation garnered considerable attention, a comprehensive understanding of the essence and implications of this phenomenon is still lacking. According to Vial [9], digital transformation embodies a process in which organizations confront and adapt to contemporary challenges by incorporating information and communication technologies (ICTs) to adjust or completely change their value creation paradigms and operational frameworks. Building on this definition, Leal Filho et al. [10] expanded that the primary objective of digital transformation is to enhance communication efficacy, customer engagement, and operational efficiency, all while nourishing competitiveness and adaptability within a dynamic milieu. However, it is important to emphasize that digital transformation is not merely about amalgamating modern technologies to expedite business operations. Rather, it involves a holistic overhaul of organizational strategic orientations, business models, and service delivery frameworks [11].

Within the framework of higher education, digital transformation is narrowly perceived as the integration of information technologies into learning, focusing on e-learning for self-directed, lifelong, and flexible learning experiences [12]. However, it is crucial to understand that digital transformation transcends this narrow perspective, infusing all facets of the educational ecosystem. This all-inclusive transformation encompasses fundamental changes in learning environments, classroom management strategies, pedagogical methods, and overall operational and management of HEIs [13]. Digital transformation pervades every format, process, and objective of working, teaching, learning, and researching in higher education, thereby fostering constructive changes within an institution [14].

Various studies allude to the fact that digital transformation in education not only cultivates an idea of innovation but also unveils a wide range of opportunities for encouraging equitable, inclusive, engaging, affordable, and accessible educational systems [15,16]. In this respect, digital transformation assumes an important role in advancing and supporting the achievement of the United Nations Agenda for sustainable development goals (SDGs) set to be attained by 2030 [17,18]. The primary objective of this agenda is to tackle systematic global challenges while remaining determined to create a world that is more prosperous, just, sustainable, and all-inclusive. Notably, this objective aligns specifically with SDG 4, which emphasizes quality education access. SDG 4 stresses the need to ensure inclusive and equitable access to high-quality education at all levels, while also fostering lifelong learning opportunities for all [19]. To achieve this goal for learning institutions, the wholehearted adoption and implementation of digital transformation is inevitable [20].

Given the significant potential of digital transformation for HEIs and inclusive education, vast research has been undertaken to understand intricate issues arising from the use of innovative technologies in higher education [21,22,23]. Most of these studies have concentrated on identifying problems facing HEIs during their transition to online learning. The collective results of these studies highlight significant obstacles in the use of new technologies in higher learning, which not only risk impeding the attainment of SDG 4 if not fully addressed but also contribute to digital and social exclusions [24,25]. The focus on challenges to digital transformation seeks to raise awareness among policymakers, prompting them to act swiftly and strategically in addressing these challenges.

However, while the literature highlighting the issues delaying the digital transformation of HEIs is key for setting the basis of future research and analyses, an equally vital aspect that is not prevalent in the literature is information pertaining to best practices. Integrating case studies illustrating best practices alongside these obstacles is imperative for an overall understanding of the subject [26]. This inclusion not only enhances the scientific discourse but also provides practical insights and strategies for HEIs to emulate, fostering evidence-based decision-making and developing the prospect of successful digital transformation within educational settings. Against this backdrop, there is a growing need for novel studies to fill this lacuna, contributing a balanced view that covers both exemplary practices and challenges of digital transformation in higher education. Thus, the current review is geared toward closing this notable gap.

Conversely, while the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has affected both poor and rich countries, students from disadvantaged backgrounds have suffered significantly [27]. Disadvantaged or marginalized groups are defined as those individuals or social groups historically downgraded to the economic and social peripheries due to their geographical location, level of education, gender, race, ability, income status, knowledge, or skills [28]. Marginalized students have faced formidable obstacles in accessing ICT facilities for higher learning, both during and post-COVID-19 episodes [29]. These students encompass individuals from rural areas, low-income households, countries characterized by restricted internet connectivity and access to electricity, and educational institutions lacking the necessary ICT infrastructure and experienced academic staff [27]. Thus, during the COVID-19 era, students from disadvantaged backgrounds not only struggled to access online education but also faced various forms of social and academic exclusions.

In the post-COVID-19 pandemic era, this systematic literature review seeks to draw lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic experience worldwide and assess how digital transformation can be harnessed to promote inclusive and equitable access to quality education in HEIs, actively promoting social justice and fairness. The literature under review covers a wide range of sources from various countries worldwide.

The objectives of this paper are:

• To identify effective strategies and lessons learned from the global COVID-19 pandemic experience to leverage digital technologies and promote inclusive and equitable access to quality education in HEIs.
• To identify and analyze the key lessons learned from the challenges faced by HEIs in implementing digital transformation to ensure inclusive and equitable access to quality education during the COVID-19 pandemic.

By promoting social justice through the effective use of digital technologies in HEIs, this review seeks to inform strategies and policy decisions that can help address the persisting inequalities and disparities in higher education, ultimately contributing to a more inclusive and equitable academic landscape. The rest of the paper outlines the conceptual framework guiding the study, describes the methods employed, presents the results, and finally, engages in discussion, conclusions, and recommendations for future research.

2. Conceptual Framework

This review is underpinned by social justice as a conceptual framework, providing a theoretical base that informs and directs the study’s argument. While there is no static or universally agreed-upon definition of social justice, scholarly explorations on social justice typically focus on a nuanced examination of privilege and poverty, access and barriers, the collective good and individual rights, and their implications for societal well-being or suffering [30]. Social justice, as defined here, embodies the principles of the equitable and fair distribution of obligations, power, and resources in society to all people regardless of socioeconomic status, gender, income status, geographical location, ability, spiritual or religious background, ethnicity or race, gender, level of education, or age [28]. Within the context of education, social justice means ensuring that every student has access to the same resources, support structures, and opportunities for success [31]. The underlying goal is to disassemble structures and systems that perpetuate inequality, thereby empowering disadvantaged groups to realize their full potential. Concepts such as social inclusion, recognition, equity, diversity, antibias, fairness, equal opportunity, equal access, and quality have been integral components of the social justice framework [31]. Recent developments in the social justice discourse have expanded the notion of social inclusion to incorporate concepts such as digital inclusion, divide, and inequality, thus ensuring that no one in society is excluded from the benefits of digital technologies including online education [32]. The current study concentrates on the core concepts of inclusivity, equity, quality, and digital divide and inequality, aligning with the study’s objectives. These concepts are crucial in understanding the complexities of digital transformation in higher education and its impact on diverse groups, ensuring a nuanced exploration of the issues and challenges addressed in this study.

Based on the widespread social gains that higher education offers, ensuring inclusive and quality access is crucial for achieving both economic efficiency and social inclusion [33]. By adopting a conceptual framework of social justice, this review aims to go beyond mere technological deliberations. This framework was regarded as most suitable for this study because it emphasizes the imperative for crafting an educational landscape that not only encapsulates technological developments but is also characterized by accessibility, quality, justice, and inclusivity for all, irrespective of potential barriers or socioeconomic differences.

3. Methods

This systematic review synthesizes the existing literature, characterized by Kitchenham et al. [34] as secondary data, to provide a comprehensive overview of digital transformation in HEIs during the COVID-19 pandemic. The reviewed literature comprises a diverse and extensive range of international sources, offering a global perspective on the research topic. The review aims to distill lessons from the experiences of HEIs worldwide, examining the dual effects of digital transformation on access to quality higher education, including both the benefits of increased inclusivity and equity, as well as the drawbacks and challenges that have emerged during the pandemic. The study therefore addresses the following research questions (RQs):

• RQ1: What lessons have been learned from the effective strategies that HEIs have employed to leverage digital technologies in promoting inclusive and equitable access to quality education during the COVID-19 pandemic?
• RQ2: What lessons have been learned from the challenges that HEIs faced in implementing digital transformation to ensure inclusive and equitable access to quality education during the COVID-19 pandemic?

The study employed a systematic literature review methodology, using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) protocol, proposed by [35]. This protocol is a widely adopted framework for conducting systematic reviews [36]. It serves as a comprehensive reporting framework used to identify and select relevant literature sources [37]. In this study, the sample selection process adhered to the systematic framework outlined in the four-phase PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1), ensuring a rigorous and transparent approach to identifying and selecting relevant studies [36]. Typically, the PRISMA protocol involves systematic searching using keywords and relevant databases, screening through the application of explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria, synthesis via categorization and data integration, and analysis and interpretation of the data to elucidate the findings and conclusions presented in the article [38].

In alignment with the research objectives and questions outlined earlier, a systematic literature search was conducted using Google Scholar and Scopus to identify relevant studies. These platforms or databases offer comprehensive coverage of scholarly literature spanning various publishing formats, fields, and environments, notably encompassing issues related to digital transformation and HEIs [13,22]. This literature explores various digital solutions, including platforms, technologies, strategies, and initiatives aimed at promoting equitable access to higher education opportunities. The selected studies offer a rich tapestry of experiences, with each paper presenting a unique perspective on the implementation and impact of these digital solutions in various higher education contexts and countries, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of their effectiveness in different settings. We applied inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure the quality and relevance of the literature. Inclusion criteria mandated that journal articles should:

• Discuss the advantages, benefits, or opportunities of digital transformation in higher education in the era of COVID-19.
• Address issues, problems, obstacles, challenges, or barriers that faced digital transformation within higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Be in the English language.
• Be published between 2020 and 2023—this timeframe corresponds to the onset of suspended in-person classes in many parts of the world due to COVID-19 and the period during which the present study was conducted.

We excluded papers that failed to meet at least one of the inclusion criteria, as well as those that lacked a retrievable PDF, had no author information, or were duplicates. These papers were removed from the sample, ensuring a refined dataset that met our specified inclusion criteria.

Our systematic literature review process began with a targeted search to identify relevant articles for the present study. These articles were required to contain specific words from two distinct search queries within their titles, abstracts, and/or keywords. The first query (“digital transformation”) AND (“sustainable development goal 4”) AND (“higher education institutions”) AND (“COVID*”) resulted in an initial set of 121 papers. The second query (“equity in education” OR “inclusive education”) AND (“quality education”) AND (“technology”) AND (“HEIs”) AND (“COVID*”) yielded a curated collection of 215 documents. After initially reviewing the titles and abstracts of all 336 identified papers, we applied our predefined criteria to select papers for further review, narrowing down the pool to the most relevant and suitable studies. This step yielded 107 papers that met the initial criteria. Next, we conducted a comprehensive full-text assessment to evaluate each paper’s eligibility against our inclusion and exclusion criteria. Papers that aligned with the inclusion criteria were deemed suitable for inclusion, resulting in 46 papers that perfectly matched our study’s scope. Figure 1 illustrates the exclusion and inclusion process at each stage. Notably, two independent reviewers conducted the screening and eligibility assessment processes independently, ensuring a rigorous and unbiased evaluation. Any discrepancies or disagreements were resolved through consensus, guaranteeing a high level of agreement. This meticulous process enabled us to ensure the quality and relevance of the selected papers. The search was performed in December 2023.

The findings were analyzed and interpreted in relation to the RQs, using the conceptual framework outlined above as a lens. This systematic approach ensured a focused analysis, aligning the findings with the study’s objectives and theoretical foundations rooted in social justice principles. The framework organized the findings into four domains—inclusivity, equity, quality, digital divide, and inequality (see

Table 1. Summary of how the findings were analyzed and interpreted in relation to the RQs, using the conceptual framework.

Domain	Definition	Source and Setting
Inclusivity	Investigating how digital transformation promotes access and participation for diverse student populations.	[39] India [40] Indonesia [41] Zambia [42] Zimbabwe [13,43] Worldwide [23] Bangladesh
Equity	Examining how digital transformation addresses issues of fairness, justice, and equal opportunities in higher education.	[44,45,46] Worldwide [47] OECD countries [48] Nordic countries [49] India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Afghanistan
Quality	Assessing how digital transformation enhances the quality of teaching, learning, and student outcomes.	[15,46,50,51,52,53,54,55] Worldwide [56] Czech [57] Bangladesh [58] China [59] India [60] Kuwait
Digital Divide and Inequality	Analyzing how digital transformation may exacerbate digital divide and inequalities in higher education	[61] Nepal [62] India [63] China [64,65,66,67] South Africa [68] United Kingdom [69] Turkey [70,71] United States [72] Spain [73] Jordan [74] Italy [75] Worldwide [76] Pakistan, Bangladesh and India [77] Myanmar [78] Developing countries [23] Bangladesh

)—enabling a comprehensive and nuanced exploration of the complex issues and challenges in digital transformation in higher education across various contexts and settings. By applying this framework, the analysis revealed actionable insights that can inform strategies for promoting equitable quality digital education, addressing the diverse needs of students, educators, and institutions.

4. Results

4.1. RQ1: What Lessons Have Been Learned from the Effective Strategies That HEIs Have Employed to Leverage Digital Technologies in Promoting Inclusive and Equitable Access to Quality Education during the COVID-19 Pandemic?

4.1.1. Inclusivity

Conventionally, inclusive education is about integrating learners with disabilities into mainstream education environments [79]. However, there is now an increasingly global view that defines inclusivity as a broad principle of embracing diversity among all learners. Kanvaria and Monika [39] argued that inclusive education is integral for promoting equitable access to high-quality education for students from different backgrounds and with unique learning abilities. Ainscow [80] underscored that inclusive education is a systematic approach designed to identify and address barriers to learning, ensuring the presence, active participation, and academic success of every student. As alluded to earlier, the COVID-19 outbreak has posed substantial challenges to the higher education sector, resulting in the shutdown of physical campuses and the rapid transition to online education. This unexpected move deprived students of access to on-campus facilities including laboratories and libraries and restricted crucial interactions between students, peers, and educators, thus increasing the risk of academic exclusion for many students.

The outcomes of the literature review underline the significant role of digital transformation in harnessing inclusivity and enhancing access to educational materials and content. In a study conducted by Hoofman [81], an examination of how medical schools responded to the challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic was undertaken. The study demonstrated how these schools adopted advanced methods of teaching to expose students to clinical settings in novel ways. The findings pointed to the significant impact of conferencing platforms such as Google Hangouts in this educational transition, granting versatile and cost-effective tools for an improved learning experience. The study emphasized the importance of hybrid teaching by these institutions, which combined live virtual sessions featuring question-and-answer interactions with prerecorded lectures for flexible asynchronous viewing. It was noted that this hybrid method created an enabling environment for introverted students to participate effectively via virtual means, facilitating interaction in a more inclusive manner.

In their investigation of the global implications of COVID-19 on education, Ausat [40] stressed the central role of digital transformation in promoting inclusivity. They underscored that technological developments have increasingly strengthened the resilience of educational institutions, making education more accessible to a broad spectrum of students, including full-time workers and disabled students. Their analysis divulged that this transformation incorporates a variety of aspects, such as distance education, the provision of learning materials, examinations, assignments tools, the use of video conferencing technologies through the application of Google Meet, Moodle, Zoom, and e-study, and learning management systems.

Truong and Diep [13] executed an extensive examination into the deployment of technology to facilitate transformation in tertiary education, exploring the complex relationship between emerging technological trends and digital transformation. They revealed a notable transformation in teaching and learning pedagogies in higher education due to an upward surge in technological developments, which have actuated improved educational access and increased motivation. Their analysis illuminated the important role played by advanced technologies like blockchain technology, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet of Things, alongside other platforms such as social networks, mobile platforms, cloud computing, big data analytics, robotic process automation, augmented reality, and additive manufacturing. Their research argued that these technologies collectively reform educational frameworks, developing a more accessible and dynamic educational setting.

Mulenga and Marban [41] examined the student teachers’ use of social media platforms, such as text messaging, Skype, email, Facebook, WhatsApp, and YouTube, in Mathematics Education at Copperbelt University, Zambia, particularly in addressing the adversities posed by the COVID-19 crisis. Their findings revealed that these networks not only influenced advancements in Mathematics Education but also exposed students to diverse online educational resources. Additionally, the study underlined the significant role of these platforms in ensuring continuous access to learning materials and efficiently overcoming time and location-related constraints. It emphasized the pivotal role of these platforms in facilitating seamless integration among students and between students and their educators.

In another study, the adoption of mobile learning (m-learning) within Zimbabwean higher education was investigated. In that study, Maketo et al. [42] shed light on the prevalence of social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Twitter among university students. The findings underscored that mobile devices were utilized to access these platforms. Highlighting the implications of m-learning, the study underlined the significance of mobile technologies in allowing students to participate in educational activities conveniently from their homes. The study argued that m-learning notably saves students’ traveling costs while affording them access to a range of educational materials, empowering them to complete their assignments at any time from anywhere.

Another important characteristic of digital transformation in enhancing inclusion in education is its ability to provide a timely, customized, and flexible learning experience. In a systematic review study, Banihashem et al. [43] investigated how learning analytics (LA) improved feedback practices in higher education settings. The findings revealed the positive role of LA in providing tailored feedback through customized notifications pertaining to students’ individual learning progress and notifying them about possible academic risks. The study underscored that this type of feedback is particularly necessary for students who are not performing well as it highlights areas that need additional support or improvement. It further showed that this personalized approach helps academic staff and institutions to tailor the learning experiences to meet individual student-specific needs, facilitating a more effective and supportive educational environment.

Digital transformation also steers international partnerships and collaborations, making higher-quality education globally accessible. In Rasli et al.’s [82] study, plans of action designed to address COVID-19-related challenges were explored. The study revealed that the internationalization of education through digital learning has empowered students from diverse geographical and cultural backgrounds and with dissimilar linguistic preferences. The study argued that this innovative approach has facilitated meaningful cross-cultural interactions, an exchange of ideas, and collaborative projects. It has enabled students to enjoy globalized learning experiences from the convenience of their homes, enabling them to overcome geographical barriers and connecting them with international peers.

4.1.2. Equity

Strategies to bolster equity frameworks became prominent due to growing disparities caused by the COVID-19 epidemic. However, establishing a clear definition of equity continues to be challenging within the scholarly community. Several studies approach the definition of equity from various angles [45]. Edgar [83] suggests that equity is closely related to the concept of distributive justice, emphasizing the equitable allocation of wealth, opportunities, and resources. Alternatively, Metsamuuronen and Lehikko [48] present a philosophical lens, viewing equity as an essential principle grounded in justice and fairness.

Tonegawa [46] provides a comprehensive analysis of equity in education, presenting two fundamental perspectives. The first perspective conceptualizes equity as the differential treatment of individuals in different situations to achieve equality, providing extra support to marginalized groups to level the playing field. The second perspective frames equity through the lens of inclusion and fairness, advocating for an educational system free from restrictions based on family background, geographical location, disabilities, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, or other factors. This perspective also underscores the importance of providing equal access to educational opportunities.

In a similar study, Amaral [44] presents a nuanced perspective on equity in higher education, emphasizing that equity aims for the attainment of consistent educational performance and success across various student demographics. This approach acknowledges the influence of factors such as class, economic status, cultural background, gender, and ethnicity on the support students need to realize these objectives. Rather than supporting the identical treatment of individuals, equity requires an in-depth understanding of the root causes of inequality and inequity. This view entails identifying existing patterns of disadvantage and privilege entrenched in practices and policy frameworks. As Minow [84] suggests, tackling these embedded patterns imposes radical changes in policy reform and resource distribution to eliminate barriers and encourage equitable opportunities for all students.

The extant research highlights the effectiveness of utilizing online strategies and tools to enhance access to distance learning, strengthen institutional resilience, and provide equitable learning opportunities irrespective of geographical and economic variations. In their policy brief, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) discussed the implications of the COVID-19 crisis on educational equity, focusing on disadvantaged student groups including students with special needs, refugees, and immigrants who faced more risks of isolation or falling behind due to campus shutdowns [47]. The brief’s key recommendations highlighted the significance of ensuring inclusive access to online tools, fostering collaborations between education sectors and national media houses, and providing free electronic devices and online materials to support students during challenging times.

The opportunities and challenges of educational equality and equity in the Nordic nations in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic were explored. In that study, Metsamuuronen and Lehikko [48] showed that although the pandemic heightened students’ inequalities, the launch of innovative technologies ushered in new pathways to alleviate educational inequality. They noted that the transition to distance online education significantly bridged the educational gap between students in urban and remote regions. This shift allowed students in remote areas access to the same language studies previously available to only their urban counterparts.

Mathrani [49] described structural discrimination in education in developing countries, focusing on India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nepal. Their research revealed significant barriers to learning for female students due to socio-cultural norms and gender prejudices. These biases often confine female students to domestic responsibilities such as household chores and sibling care over educational pursuits, limiting their educational progress and opportunities compared to their male student fellows who have more time for studying. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns, which heightened these inequalities, their study proposed a substantial transition towards digital learning. It suggested that this paradigm shift empowered female students by enabling them to manage cultural expectations while pursuing their studies. A framework for ensuring equitable access to educational materials through mobile devices was proposed, providing women with the flexibility to participate in their studies on their schedule.

4.1.3. Quality

There is a growing debate about the definition of “quality education”, with several researchers presenting different perspectives [46]. Vykydal [56] underscores the significance of quality in education, stating that it shapes the future of society. Gupta [85] views quality education as a means of honing students’ abilities, skills, and knowledge, enabling them to think critically, gain confidence, and act in ways that benefit humanity and society. From this perspective, quality education can be defined based on inputs, processes, and outcomes aiming to widen access to educational resources and materials, promote excellence, create warm learning environments, promote active participation and lifelong learning, and contribute to enhanced inclusion and reduced inequalities [54,57].

The findings show an increasing trend in the use of digital technologies in higher education to improve the overall quality of education. Chugh et al. [52] examined educational technology adoption in HEIs. Their findings highlighted the benefits of leveraging digital tools and platforms, such as social media platforms, m-leaning, Chatbots, learning management systems, and video conferencing. They revealed that these tools have enabled educators to create stimulating learning milieus for their students, resulting in positive social and academic outcomes in both the short and long term.

In a similar study, Cabaleiro-Cervino and Vera [51] found that there is a beneficial relationship between the utilization of educational technologies and the conveyance of high-quality education. Their research demonstrated that the strategic use of multimedia technology has facilitated active learning and teaching methods, resulting in improved educational outcomes. Notably, the study emphasized multimedia effectiveness in augmenting information retention and quality education, boosting students’ memory and comprehension through advanced language integration and vivid visuals. Furthermore, the study emphasized this technology’s ability to merge cognitive and efficient processes, which nurtures collaborations among students. It was found that these factors collectively contribute to an upsurge in the proficiency and overall quality of educational experiences.

Utilizing a case study of Central China Normal University, Xidian University, and Wuhan University of Technology, Yang [58] explored how the use of new technologies in China’s universities has assisted in improving high-quality development. The study revealed the potential of modern technologies to drive significant shifts in both higher education research and practical application. According to the study, digital transformation serves as a stimulus for creating a high-quality and resilient higher education system that prioritizes human-centered development. This includes attending to personalized, dynamic, and holistic needs within the educational framework.

In light of strategical frameworks and contingency plans to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic-related challenges faced by the education sector, AlQashouti [50] recommended innovative, hands-on technologies to enhance education quality. These solutions comprised a multitude of measures such as online learning platforms, both synchronous and asynchronous remote learning, software simulations serving as alternatives for traditional laboratory experiments, and other adaptive methods.

Ahmad [59] presented a comprehensive overview of the online initiatives that the Government of India implemented to accelerate higher education access and quality. Their findings indicated that digital transformation redefined instructors’ roles and responsibilities in teaching and learning, consequently leading to improvement in education quality and students’ skills development, critical for their nation’s economic growth. Spoken Tutor, an online platform, was cited as an example illustrating initiatives that enhanced students’ academic excellence. It was stated that this platform offered students the flexibility to access a spectrum of courses and learning materials in their preferred language and at their own pace. It was reported that this flexibility fostered a deeper understanding of the subject and contributed to enhanced learning outcomes.

The role of digital technologies in restructuring HEIs and improving students’ performance was also investigated by Fernández et al. [15]. In that investigation, the transformative journey of universities was scrutinized, with a particular focus on accomplishing high-quality and competitive education. Their findings highlighted the importance of advanced technologies, cloud computing, and AI in driving digital transformation. These technologies were acknowledged for strengthening institutions’ resilience in the face of competitive pressures and enhancing the quality of education.

Schonberger [55] discussed the advantages and disadvantages of AI in higher education. They argued that while the use of AI tools, including ChatGPT, has raised concerns about plagiarism and cheating risks, it has also presented immense opportunities and benefits for academic success. They concluded by recommending a need for strategic and careful utilization of these tools to mitigate associated risks and increase their positive impact.

In a similar study, the impact of ChatGPT on improving students’ productivity was explored. In that study, Fauzi et al. [53] revealed a positive effect of ChatGPT on students, assisting them in achieving their academic goals and enhancing their overall productivity. They illuminated ChatGPT’s beneficial role as a language model, noting how it supports students in offering valuable information, providing encouragement and assistance, enhancing time management, developing collaborative learning environments, and improving language skills.

Alhammadi’s [60] study utilized interviews to gather students’ experiences of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of that study recorded an increase in student engagement and comprehension, which resulted in better marks compared to in-person learning experiences prior to the pandemic lockdowns. However, the study suggested a robust and stable technological infrastructure to prevent a digital divide and unintentional inequalities.

4.2. RQ2: What Lessons Have Been Learned from the Challenges That HEIs Faced in Implementing Digital Transformation to Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Access to Quality Education during the COVID-19 Pandemic?

Digital Divide and Inequality

While digital transformation has influenced higher education positively, scholarly investigations into equitable and inclusive education have progressively raised concerns regarding the social inequality resulting from the explosion of innovative technologies in higher education [61]. This disparity is commonly referred to as the “digital divide” [62]. Conventionally, the term digital divide has represented unequal access to several ICTs, including devices such as computers, smartphones, laptops, and tablets and access to the Internet [63]. In recent times, the digital divide concept has extended beyond mere physical access to technology devices, integrating additional dimensions, knowledge, skills, competent application, and frequent use of these technologies for socioeconomic gains [64].

Discrepancies in access and skills are intensely entrenched in economic, cultural, and social contexts, including variables such as digital facilities, resource availability, income, level of education, gender, disability, geographical location, language, and race [68,86]. Social justice studies have recognized the digital divide as a social problem of access, positioning socioeconomically marginalized communities at greater difficulty in gaining the benefits of online technologies and platforms [69]. The rise in online learning stimulated by the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated this gap, further compromising students from disadvantaged households and communities [70]. Recent investigations denote that the digital divide not only discriminates against disadvantaged populations but also exacerbates existing inequalities, impeding the realization of SGDs, particularly #4 (access to quality education) and #10 (reduced inequalities) [72]. Al Kaabi and Qawasmeh [73] contend that the digital divide has persisted despite policies and concerted efforts aimed at bridging the access divide in HEIs.

Agasisti and Soncin [74] explored the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy, especially in the Lombardy region, which not only became the first but also the most severely affected area among Western nations. Within the education setting, the study revealed that the transition to online education during the COVID-19 crisis worsened existing socioeconomic inequalities, putting more strain on families, especially in the southern regions, denoting a digital divide. An illustrative example demonstrated that before the interventions enacted by regional governments and universities, which came late, many households relied solely on one smartphone as the only device for supporting online learning.

In their study, Roshid et al. [23] assessed the extent to which “Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning” (ERTL) ensured fairness, access, and equity for teachers and students at the private higher institution of learning in Bangladesh at the time of the COVID-19 crisis. Their findings showed that students from disadvantaged backgrounds in suburban and rural areas had neither educational equity nor fairness due to the lack of access to reliable internet facilities and amenities necessary for attending virtual classes. Both students and educators raised concerns vis-à-vis the inadequate maintenance of educational integrity in assessments. Furthermore, the study pointed to a lack of appropriate distributive policy frameworks and a failure to remove complex institutional structures that continue to discriminate against low-income individuals, compromising social justice for all.

In understanding the impact of the digital divide on students in HEIs in South Africa, Faloe and Ajayi [65] revealed that students who gained experience in computer usage prior to tertiary education enjoyed an advantage, optimizing their expertise for higher education learning purposes. In contrast, their findings indicated that students who grew up without sufficient knowledge and access to computers encountered difficulties associated with the basic components of computer hardware and the actual use of computers and related technologies, delaying their academic success.

Ogundari [71] studied whether technology access at home influences the amount of time students spend on learning, examining variations across ethnic and racial groups during the COVID-19 outbreak in the United States (U.S.). The study’s presupposition was that it was unlikely to expect a uniform educational experience for all students in a home-based setting, given the discrepancies in access to digital tools in the U.S. Their findings revealed that while technology access at home had increasingly enhanced learning hours among the student population, inconsistencies were evident among racial groups, indicative of the existing digital divide in American society. Notably, Black, Hispanic, and low-income households were more disadvantaged due to limited access to computers and uninterrupted internet connections. The findings further revealed a pronounced inconsistency in the intensity of technology access, with Asian and White families in the sampled population exhibiting higher levels, respectively. The study recommended that governments speed up policy and program implementations addressing the digital divide in education, aligning with ongoing initiatives to enhance education equity in the U.S.

Devkota’s [61] research investigated how Nepal’s higher education reinforced social inequalities because of universities’ transition to online education before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study discerns three key mechanisms strengthening social inequalities, namely, policy, infrastructure preparedness, and experience in digital teaching and learning. In terms of policy, the study revealed that the country’s educational policies were ambiguous, resulting in inconsistencies in nationwide implementation. The findings further revealed a lack of infrastructure, including mobile phones, computers, and internet access as a barrier to equity and social justice in higher education. Moreover, the findings revealed a dearth of strong support systems for students coming from marginalized groups, including those with limited technological skills and proficiency in the English language.

Aristovnik et al. [75] undertook a comprehensive global perspective study examining university students’ perceptions of the effects of the COVID-19 episode in early 2020 on different aspects of their lives. The study had a sample of more than 30,000 students across 62 nations. The findings indicated that challenges such as increased workload and lack of computer skills hindered students’ perception of academic success in the new learning environment. Moreover, the findings indicated that students with specific demographic characteristics, such as being part-time, first-year, male, or from Asia or Africa, studying applied sciences, or having a lower living standard were significantly less satisfied with their academic life/work during the pandemic. Conversely, full-time, first-level, female students and those who were suffering financially were personally and emotionally affected by the pandemic.

Saleh et al. [76] examined the impact of COVID-19 on the tertiary education systems within Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India, all of which are member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Data collection was performed through a comprehensive literature review and in-depth interviews. The findings highlighted problems within the education systems of all three countries, pinpointing issues related to limited resources, a noticeable digital divide, and unreliable infrastructure, creating a difficult learning experience during this challenging period. The study recommended that government interventions narrow the digital divide and improve the quality of teaching and learning.

Nanthakorn et al. [77] investigated the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2021 military coup d’état on the digital divide, specifically evaluating their impacts on the learning experience of students in Myanmar. The findings revealed serious implications of these events on the ongoing digital divide discrepancy within the country. It was found that students, on many occasions, lacked the necessary technical skills or equipment prerequisite for effective online learning during the national crises. The results revealed that most students countrywide had no computers, with IT proficiency levels remaining at an average standard. While smartphones were more accessible to students, they were of lower quality or often outdated. Moreover, the findings revealed that despite being available, internet connectivity was susceptible to military disruptions. Nonetheless, the study commended the IT infrastructure, which played a significant role in supporting and sustaining the well-being of students in Myanmar during these challenging times.

In a study that explored the digital workplace in South Africa’s twenty-six public universities, Kanyane [67] revealed inequalities that made it harder for academics to perform their duties optimally in a digital environment. The findings indicated that disparities within HEIs were arbitrarily perpetuated by the difference between historically “Black” and “White” universities. White universities were reserved for White people and Black universities for non-whites. The study disclosed that the classical differentiation of these universities undermined the quality of education. The example cited illustrated that most rural-based universities, which happened to be black, experienced poor access to internet and electricity connectivity and were deficient in resources and skill capacity to respond swiftly to a constantly changing digital environment.

Tadesse and Muluye [78] evaluated how has the COVID-19 pandemic affected the education system in developing nations. The study established that online learning during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic is a solution for educational continuity. Conversely, the study revealed the lack of computers, internet access, and network infrastructure as significant barriers to distance learning in these countries.

Magedi et al. [66] conducted an examination of the challenges confronted by students with disabilities in a selected university of technology after the introduction of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings revealed a major disadvantage for most students with disabilities, particularly when it comes to assessments. An illustrative example revealed cases where educators uploaded tasks on Brightspace, an online learning platform, but decided to not forward the same task to the Disability Unit for adaptation in formats including enlargement and Braille. The findings revealed that this was seen as inequitable treatment toward students with disabilities who were expected to submit completed tasks on the same day as their fellow students without consideration of their challenges. The study contended that both students with and without disabilities can benefit from digital learning when required assistance is adequately provided to ensure that social justice is served and no one is compromised in the process.

5. Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations for Future Research

While the issue of quality education access is not new in the education sector, the analysis highlights a remarkable shift in its significance within HEIs since the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic. This heightened significance is particularly attributed to the widespread utilization of digital technologies, which have become instrumental in reshaping educational practices and priorities, emphasizing the need for just and sustainable educational development in this new landscape. The data analysis presents compelling evidence of digital transformation’s profound impact on enhancing education quality access, particularly through the implementation of inclusive educational practices. This is in line with Kaimara [87], who noted that technologies have not only transformed the way knowledge is processed and shared but also accessed, providing vast opportunities to enhance inclusivity in education. It is evident from the data that digital transformation has broken down barriers to learning, making education more accessible and flexible. Online learning tools and platforms empower students to access educational resources and materials anytime and anywhere. This flexibility eliminates geographical and socioeconomic constraints, allowing individuals, including those with disabilities, in remote areas, living abroad, and cannot afford to relocate to pursue education remotely, enabling them to pursue education alongside professional and personal commitments. It is also evident from the data that digital technologies facilitate personalized learning experiences through the utilization of online learning platforms and management systems. These systems apply adaptive learning mechanisms to satisfy the individual needs and learning pace of each student. This personalized approach enriches students’ understanding and self-assurance, fostering robust engagement and collaboration with their peers. It is therefore imperative for policy makers and HEIs to continue embracing and incorporating educational technologies into higher education curricula while also addressing related problems to ensure equitable access and improve the benefits for all students.

The role of digital technologies in improving the quality of education cannot be overemphasized. The analysis reveals the positive role of digital transformation in facilitating access to quality education—a fundamental component of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. According to this agenda, inclusive and equitable access to affordable and quality education ensures that all people, irrespective of their social, environmental, technological, and economic status, have access to life-long learning opportunities that empower them to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to seize opportunities and make meaningful contributions to society [19]. Digital transformation provides both educators and students with a diverse array of tools and resources that transcend traditional boundaries, significantly enhancing the quality of education. Evidence from the data indicates that the use of educational technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic landscape has allowed students to access a broad spectrum of learning materials and resources including e-books, podcasts, and videos, not only providing access to lecture materials but also enabling additional information gathering for their academic pursuits. This echoes Haleem et al.’s [88] findings, indicating increased engagement and a stronger desire to learn among students utilizing online learning platforms. These resources foster an environment of dynamic, interactive, and self-paced learning, driving sustained interest and focus on studies and leading to consistent task completion. It is evident from the data that there is a correlation between independent learning and the organic development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills among students. This natural progression significantly enhances their efficiency and the overall quality of their work. Equipped with these competencies, students become adept not only at addressing academic challenges but also at navigating the complexities they encounter in their personal and professional lives. Against this backdrop, it becomes increasingly evident that the effective use of innovative technologies in higher education yields significant benefits for sustainable development.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge that digital transformation is not a one-size-fits-all remedy, and if not implemented equitably and inclusively, may inadvertently increase the digital divide and inherent inequalities. The findings have revealed that while digital transformation opened avenues for ensuring inclusive and equitable access to quality higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, it also increased the digital gap and widened existing social inequalities, positioning students who lack technical skills or equipment at greater difficulty in gaining benefits of online technologies and platforms. The implication of the above finding is that disadvantaged students come from marginalized communities characterized by low-income households, poor ICT infrastructural development, and poor electricity and internet connectivity. As Herckis and Leiser [89] and Moonasamy [90] theorized, unequal distribution of fundamental digital requirements, including electricity, internet connectivity, devices, and digital skills, can exacerbate a digital divide and widen the equality gap. Policy makers have a pivotal role to play in mitigating the digital divide, particularly amidst the exigencies of crisis-induced campus closures. Without robust support mechanisms, the repercussions of unequal access to learning and instructional technology can be detrimental to an entire cohort of students.

It is clear from the analysis, therefore, that all forms of inequalities and exclusions can be addressed through judicious technology use and fair allocation of digital resources, effectively leveling the playing field. In the absence of adequate digital requirements and proper use of technologies, students from poor socioeconomic households are unlikely to access and participate in online learning, increasing their likelihood of falling behind. To attain equity, nations and HEIs must not only recognize that digital transformation is a critical factor for success but also understand that its effectiveness hinges on a comprehensive integration of diverse, interconnected measures that are parallel to the demands of the global knowledge economy. By committing to the implementation of equitable digital transformation, governments and HEIs pledge to confront contemporary systemic and structural challenges. This commitment extends to the elimination of historical inequalities in education access, with the overarching goal of ensuring that every student, including those from disadvantaged backgrounds and remote areas, can access quality education.

Furthermore, the findings point to a lack of support mechanisms and distributive and redistributive policies to dismantle barriers that perpetuate prejudice against marginalized students. The inability to implement appropriate policies compromises social justice and the achievement of SDGs of reduced inequalities and all-inclusive education. To implement distributive policies and redistribute resources, technical, financial, and human resources must be set aside. The accumulation of resources requires both acquiring external funding and prioritizing the policy in the government’s budget allocation process.

Given the above findings, the study therefore concludes that it is crucial that relevant strategies for digital transformation are developed, implemented, and championed to promote social justice, ensuring inclusive and equitable access to quality higher education and opportunities for all students. Social justice in higher education can be restored in two ways. First, at the governmental and institutional levels, policy makers and HEIs can enforce policies that mandate equitable treatment for all students, with particular emphasis on the inclusion of disadvantaged students in online learning initiatives. This may include parity in the allocation of resources, changes to curriculum standards and assessment practices, and the promotion of accessibility standards to digital learning platforms to better support the needs of diverse student populations. Second, at the classroom level, educators can be inclusive in their pedagogies, considering the diverse learning needs of students in online learning environments. This may include integrating multiple modalities of adaptive technologies, accessible materials, and instruction.

While the findings of this study have direct implications for higher education access and learning in the post-COVID-19 pandemic era, authors recommend that future research could investigate the impact of policy initiatives aimed at reducing inequalities in access to resources, technologies, and educational opportunities for disadvantaged students, as well as the opportunities and challenges associated with implementing and sustaining policy reforms at the governmental and institutional levels. By pursuing these research directions, practitioners and scholars can contribute to a greater understanding of effective strategies for fostering equity and inclusion in digital learning ecosystems. Furthermore, this review has several limitations, and future research can expand its scope in three key areas. Firstly, our literature search was restricted to two scientific databases and platforms, which may have overlooked relevant articles not indexed in our selected databases. Secondly, while we covered various countries worldwide, some regions or countries may be underrepresented or missing. Thirdly, language bias was a constraint, as we only included English-language articles, potentially excluding valuable research in other languages. To address these limitations, future studies can broaden the scope by expanding the literature search, ensuring more comprehensive global representation, and incorporating multi-language searches. By doing so, future research can provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the complex issues arising from the integration of digital technologies in HEIs.